3,113
Views
18
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Oral Health Messiers: Diabetes Mellitus Relevance

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 3001-3015 | Published online: 01 Jul 2021

References

  • Blaslov K , Naranđa FS , Kruljac I , Renar IP . Treatment approach to type 2 diabetes: past, present, and future. World J Diabetes . 2018;9(12):209–219. doi:10.4239/wjd.v9.i12.209 30588282
  • Aynalem SB , Zeleke AJ . Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its risk factors among individuals aged 15 years and above in Mizan-Aman Town, Southwest Ethiopia, 2016: a Cross-Sectional Study. Int J Endocrinol . 2018;2018:9317987. doi:10.1155/2018/9317987 29853887
  • American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of medical care in diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care . 2021;44(Suppl 1):S15–S33. doi:10.2337/dc21-S002 33298413
  • World Health Organization. Health topics/diabetes. 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland: WHO Press, World Health Organization; 2021. Available from: https://www.who.int/health-topics/diabetes#tab=tab_1. Accessed 4 17, 2021.
  • Cho NH , Shaw JE , Karuranga S , et al. IDF diabetes atlas: global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2017 and projections for 2045. Diabetes Res Clin Pract . 2018;138:271–281. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2018.02.023 29496507
  • World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee. Global report on diabetes. 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland: WHO Press, World Health Organization; 2016. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565257. Accessed 4 17, 2021.
  • Sarwar N , Gao P , Seshasai SR , Gobin R , Kaptoge S ; Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet . 2010;375(9733):2215–2222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9 20609967
  • Dall TM , Yang W , Halder P , et al. The economic burden of elevated blood glucose levels in 2012: diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, and prediabetes. Diabetes Care . 2014;37(12):3172–3179. doi:10.2337/dc14-1036 25414388
  • Bhupathiraju SN , Hu FB . Epidemiology of obesity and diabetes and their cardiovascular complications. Circ Res . 2016;118(11):1723–1735. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306825 27230638
  • Seng JJB , Kwan YH , Lee VSY , et al. Differential health care use, diabetes-related complications, and mortality among five unique classes of patients with type 2 diabetes in Singapore: a latent class analysis of 71,125 patients. Diabetes Care . 2020;43(5):1048–1056. doi:10.2337/dc19-2519 32188774
  • Nickerson HD , Dutta S . Diabetic complications: current challenges and opportunities. J Cardiovasc Transl Res . 2012;5(4):375–379. doi:10.1007/s12265-012-9388-1 22752737
  • Maugeri G , Bucolo C , Drago F , et al. Attenuation of high glucose-induced damage in RPE cells through p38 MAPK signaling pathway inhibition. Front Pharmacol . 2021;12:684680. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.684680 34025440
  • Hap K , Biernat K , Konieczny G . Patients with diabetes complicated by peripheral artery disease: the current state of knowledge on physiotherapy interventions. J Diabetes Res . 2021;2021:5122494. doi:10.1155/2021/5122494 34056006
  • Pettus JH , Zhou FL , Shepherd L , et al. Incidences of severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis and prevalence of microvascular complications stratified by age and glycemic control in U.S. adult patients with type 1 diabetes: a Real-World Study. Diabetes Care . 2019;42(12):2220–2227. doi:10.2337/dc19-0830 31548241
  • Cicmil A , Govedarica O , Lečić J , Mališ S , Cicmil S , Čakić S . Oral symptoms and mucosal lesions in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2. Balk J Dent Med . 2017;21(1):50–54. doi:10.1515/bjdm-2017-0007
  • Nazir MA , AlGhamdi L , AlKadi M , AlBeajan N , AlRashoudi L , AlHussan M . The burden of diabetes, its oral complications and their prevention and management. Open Access Maced J Med Sci . 2018;6(8):1545–1553. doi:10.3889/oamjms.2018.294 30159091
  • González-Serrano J , Serrano J , López-Pintor RM , Paredes VM , Casañas E , Hernández G . Prevalence of oral mucosal disorders in diabetes mellitus patients compared with a control group. J Diabetes Res . 2016;2016:5048967. doi:10.1155/2016/5048967 27847829
  • Indurkar MS , Maurya AS , Indurkar S . Oral manifestations of diabetes. Clin Diabetes . 2016;34(1):54–57. doi:10.2337/diaclin.34.1.54 26807010
  • Al-Maskari AY , Al-Maskari MY , Al-Sudairy S . Oral manifestations and complications of diabetes mellitus: a review. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J . 2011;11(2):179–186.21969888
  • Mauri-Obradors E , Estrugo-Devesa A , Jané-Salas E , Viñas M , López-López J . Oral manifestations of diabetes mellitus. A systematic review. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal . 2017;22(5):e586–e594. doi:10.4317/medoral.21655 28809366
  • Ship JA . Diabetes and oral health: an overview. J Am Dent Assoc . 2003;134 Spec No:4S–10S. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2003.0367 18196667
  • Trentin MS , Verardi G , Verardi G , Ferreira MDC , da Silva SO , Paranhos LR . Most frequent oral lesions in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Contemp Dent Pract . 2017;18(2):107–111. doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10024-1999 28174362
  • Khan T . Oral manifestations and complications of diabetes mellitus: a review. Int J Med Health Res . 2018;4:50–52. doi:10.22271/ijmhr
  • Taylor JJ , Preshaw PM , Lalla E . A review of the evidence for pathogenic mechanisms that may link periodontitis and diabetes. J Clin Periodontol . 2013;40(Suppl 14):S113–34. doi:10.1111/jcpe.12059 23627323
  • Llambés F , Arias-Herrera S , Caffesse R . Relationship between diabetes and periodontal infection. World J Diabetes . 2015;6(7):927–935. doi:10.4239/wjd.v6.i7.927 26185600
  • Bajaj S , Prasad S , Gupta A , Singh VB . Oral manifestations in type-2 diabetes and related complications. Indian J Endocrinol Metab . 2012;16(5):777–779. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.100673 23087863
  • Lessa LS , Pires PDS , Ceretta RA , et al. Meta-analysis of prevalence of xerostomia in diabetes mellitus. Int Arch Med . 2015;8(224):1–13. doi:10.3823/1823
  • Lima DLF , Carneiro SDRM , Barbosa FTS , Saintrain MVL , Moizan JAH , Doucet J . Salivary flow and xerostomia in older patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. PLoS One . 2017;12(8):e0180891. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180891 28767676
  • Mortazavi H , Baharvand M , Movahhedian A , Mohammadi M , Khodadoustan A . Xerostomia due to systemic disease: a review of 20 conditions and mechanisms. Ann Med Health Sci Res . 2014;4(4):503–510. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.139284 25221694
  • Navea Aguilera C . The relationship between xerostomia and diabetes mellitus: a little-known complication. Endocrinol Nutr . 2015;62(1):45–46. English, Spanish. doi:10.1016/j.endonu.2014.09.004 25458402
  • Hoseini A , Mirzapour A , Bijani A , Shirzad A . Salivary flow rate and xerostomia in patients with type I and II diabetes mellitus. Electron Physician . 2017;9(9):5244–5249. doi:10.19082/5244 29038704
  • Mohanty S , Mohanty N , Rath S . Analysis of oral health complications in diabetic patients – a diagnostic perspective. J Oral Res . 2018;7(8):278–281. doi:10.17126/joralres.2018.072
  • Jha R , Kalyani P , Bavishi R . Oral manifestations of diabetes. J Res Med Dent Sci . 2017;2(3):6–8. doi:10.5455/jrmds.2014232
  • Sasaki H , Hirai K , Martins CM , Furusho H , Battaglino R , Hashimoto K . Interrelationship between periapical lesion and systemic metabolic disorders. Curr Pharm Des . 2016;22(15):2204–2215. doi:10.2174/1381612822666160216145107 26881444
  • Spampinato SF , Caruso GI , De Pasquale R , Sortino MA , Merlo S . The treatment of impaired wound healing in diabetes: looking among old drugs. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) . 2020;13(4):60. doi:10.3390/ph13040060
  • Moin M , Malik A . Frequency of dental caries and level of risk among type II diabetic. Dentistry . 2015;5:334–338. doi:10.4172/2161-1122.1000334
  • Seetha Lakshmi C , Reddy RC , Asifa N , Prabhu S . Correlation of salivary pH, incidence of dental caries and periodontal status in diabetes mellitus patients: a Cross-Sectional Study. J Clin Diagn Res . 2016;10(3):ZC12–4. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2016/16310.7351
  • Latti BR , Kalburge JV , Birajdar SB , Latti RG . Evaluation of relationship between dental caries, diabetes mellitus and oral microbiota in diabetics. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol . 2018;22(2):282. doi:10.4103/jomfp.JOMFP_163_16
  • Su N , Ching V , Grushka M . Taste disorders: a review. J Can Dent Assoc . 2013;79:d86.24309062
  • Khera S , Saigal A . Assessment and evaluation of gustatory functions in patients with diabetes mellitus type II: a study. Indian J Endocrinol Metab . 2018;22(2):204–207. doi:10.4103/ijem.IJEM_555_17 29911032
  • Wasalathanthri S , Hettiarachchi P , Prathapan S . Sweet taste sensitivity in pre-diabetics, diabetics and normoglycemic controls: a comparative cross-sectional study. BMC Endocr Disord . 2014;14(1):67. doi:10.1186/1472-6823-14-67 25123551
  • Renton T . Burning mouth syndrome. Rev Pain . 2011;5(4):127. doi:10.1177/204946371100500403
  • Ahmad P , Akhtar U , Chaudhry A , Rahid U , Saif S , Asif JA . Repercussions of diabetes mellitus on the oral cavity. Eur J Gen Dent . 2019;8(3):55–62. doi:10.4103/ejgd.ejgd_28_19
  • Erriu M , Pili FM , Cadoni S , Garau V . Diagnosis of lingual atrophic conditions: associations with local and systemic factors. a descriptive review. Open Dent J . 2016;10(1):619–635. doi:10.2174/1874210601610010619 27990187
  • Aylıkcı BU , Colak H . Halitosis: from diagnosis to management. J Nat Sci Biol Med . 2013;4(1):14–23. doi:10.4103/0976-9668.107255 23633830
  • Atefi N , Majedi M , Peyghambari S , Ghourchian S . Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and impaired fasting blood glucose in patients with lichen planus. Med J Islam Repub Iran . 2012;26(1):22–26.23482842
  • Mozaffari HR , Sharifi R , Sadeghi M . Prevalence of oral lichen planus in diabetes mellitus: a Meta-Analysis Study. Acta Inform Med . 2016;24(6):390–393. doi:10.5455/aim.2016.24.390-393 28077900
  • Iqbal MA , Yesmin S , Maaisha F , Ibrahim S , Gotame P . Oral lichen planus and its recent management: a review update. Dent Coll J . 2020;10(2):29–34. doi:10.3329/updcj.v10i2.50179
  • Uma Maheswari T , Chaudhary M . Management of oral lichen planus based on the existing clinical practice guidelines. J Indian Acad Oral Med Radiol . 2020;32(3):284. doi:10.4103/jiaomr.jiaomr_55_20
  • Davis TME , Bruce DG , Curtis BH , Barraclough H , Davis WA . The relationship between intensification of blood glucose-lowering therapies, health status and quality of life in type 2 diabetes: the Fremantle Diabetes Study Phase II. Diabetes Res Clin Pract . 2018;142:294–302. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2018.05.047 29879496
  • Bowyer V , Sutcliffe P , Ireland R , et al. Oral health awareness in adult patients with diabetes: a Questionnaire Study. Br Dent J . 2011;211(6):E12. doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.2011.769 21941301
  • Shanmukappa SM , Nadig P , Puttannavar R , Ambareen Z , Gowda TM , Mehta DS . Knowledge, attitude, and awareness among diabetic patients in davangere about the association between diabetes and periodontal disease. J Int Soc Prev Community Dent . 2017;7(6):381–388. doi:10.4103/jispcd.JISPCD_390_17 29387625
  • Poudel P , Griffiths R , Wong VW , et al. Perceptions and practices of diabetes educators in providing oral health care: a Qualitative Study. Diabetes Educ . 2018;44(5):454–464. doi:10.1177/0145721718796055 30141382
  • Lang NP , Bartold PM . Periodontal health. J Periodontol . 2018;89(Suppl1):S9–S16. doi:10.1002/JPER.16-0517 29926938
  • Guthmiller JM , Novak KF . Periodontal diseases. In: Brogden KA , Guthmiller JM , editors. Polymicrobial Diseases . Washington (DC): ASM Press; 2002. Chapter 8. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2496/. Accessed 4 17, 2021.
  • Tsaousoglou P , Nietzsche S , Cachovan G , Sculean A , Eick S . Antibacterial activity of moxifloxacin on bacteria associated with periodontitis within a biofilm. J Med Microbiol . 2014;63(Pt 2):284–292. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.065441-0 24217128
  • Jünemann S , Prior K , Szczepanowski R , et al. Bacterial community shift in treated periodontitis patients revealed by ion torrent 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. PLoS One . 2012;7(8):e41606. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041606 22870235
  • Hajishengallis G , Liang S , Payne MA , et al. Low-abundance biofilm species orchestrates inflammatory periodontal disease through the commensal microbiota and complement. Cell Host Microbe . 2011;10(5):497–506. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2011.10.006 22036469
  • Mussbacher M , Salzmann M , Brostjan C , et al. Cell type-specific roles of NF-κB linking inflammation and thrombosis. Front Immunol . 2019;10:85. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00085 30778349
  • Iba T , Levy JH . Inflammation and thrombosis: roles of neutrophils, platelets and endothelial cells and their interactions in thrombus formation during sepsis. J Thromb Haemost . 2018;16(2):231–241. doi:10.1111/jth.13911 29193703
  • Dahiya P , Kamal R , Gupta R , Bhardwaj R , Chaudhary K , Kaur S . Reactive oxygen species in periodontitis. J Indian Soc Periodontol . 2013;17(4):411–416. doi:10.4103/0972-124X.118306 24174716
  • Mittal M , Siddiqui MR , Tran K , Reddy SP , Malik AB . Reactive oxygen species in inflammation and tissue injury. Antioxid Redox Signal . 2014;20(7):1126–1167. doi:10.1089/ars.2012.5149 23991888
  • Yasunari K , Watanabe T , Nakamura M . Reactive oxygen species formation by polymorphonuclear cells and mononuclear cells as a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. Curr Pharm Biotechnol . 2006;7(2):73–80. doi:10.2174/138920106776597612 16724940
  • Daniel R , Gokulanathan S , Shanmugasundaram N , Lakshmigandhan M , Kavin T . Diabetes and periodontal disease. J Pharm Bioallied Sci . 2012;4(Suppl 2):S280–2. doi:10.4103/0975-7406.100251 23066270
  • Tavares RDCR , Ortigara GB , Tatsch KF , Ferreira CM , Boligon J , Moreira CHC . Association between periodontitis and glycated hemoglobin levels in individuals living in rural Southern Brazil. Clin Oral Investig . 2021. doi:10.1007/s00784-021-03980-y
  • Sima C , Van Dyke TE . Therapeutic targets for management of periodontitis and diabetes. Curr Pharm Des . 2016;22(15):2216–2237. doi:10.2174/1381612822666160216150338 26881443
  • Kayal RA . The role of osteoimmunology in periodontal disease. Biomed Res Int . 2013;2013:639368. doi:10.1155/2013/639368 24151615
  • Silva JA , Ferrucci DL , Peroni LA , et al. Sequential IL-23 and IL-17 and increased Mmp8 and Mmp14 expression characterize the progression of an experimental model of periodontal disease in type 1 diabetes. J Cell Physiol . 2012;227(6):2441–2450. doi:10.1002/jcp.22979 21826658
  • Duarte PM , de Oliveira MC , Tambeli CH , Parada CA , Casati MZ , Nociti FH Jr . Overexpression of interleukin-1beta and interleukin-6 may play an important role in periodontal breakdown in type 2 diabetic patients. J Periodontal Res . 2007;42(4):377–381. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0765.2006.00961.x 17559636
  • Lappin DF , Eapen B , Robertson D , Young J , Hodge PJ . Markers of bone destruction and formation and periodontitis in type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Periodontol . 2009;36(8):634–641. doi:10.1111/j.1600-051X.2009.01440.x 19624408
  • Taylor GW , Graves DT , Lamster IB . Periodontal disease as a complication of diabetes mellitus. In: Lamster IB , editor. Diabetes Mellitus and Oral Health: An Interprofessional Approach . Ames: John Wiley & Sons; 2014:121–142. 9600 Garsington Road, 29 Dzerzhinskogo St. Oxford, OX4 2DQ UK.
  • Kocher T , König J , Borgnakke WS , Pink C , Meisel P . Periodontal complications of hyperglycemia/diabetes mellitus: epidemiologic complexity and clinical challenge. Periodontol 2000 . 2018;78(1):59–97. doi:10.1111/prd.12235 30198134
  • Shetty N , Thomas B , Ramesh A . Comparison of neutrophil functions in diabetic and healthy subjects with chronic generalized periodontitis. J Indian Soc Periodontol . 2008;12(2):41–44. doi:10.4103/0972-124X.44089 20142943
  • Pacios S , Andriankaja O , Kang J , et al. Bacterial infection increases periodontal bone loss in diabetic rats through enhanced apoptosis. Am J Pathol . 2013;183(6):1928–1935. doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.08.017 24113454
  • Kang J , de Brito Bezerra B , Pacios S , et al. Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans infection enhances apoptosis in vivo through a caspase-3-dependent mechanism in experimental periodontitis. Infect Immun . 2012;80(6):2247–2256. doi:10.1128/IAI.06371-11 22451521
  • Graves DT , Liu R , Oates TW . Diabetes-enhanced inflammation and apoptosis: impact on periodontal pathosis. Periodontol 2000 . 2007;45(1):128–137. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0757.2007.00219.x 17850453
  • Ponugoti B , Dong G , Graves DT . Role of forkhead transcription factors in diabetes-induced oxidative stress. Exp Diabetes Res . 2012;2012:939751. doi:10.1155/2012/939751 22454632
  • Zheng M , Wang C , Ali A , Shih YA , Xie Q , Guo C . Prevalence of periodontitis in people clinically diagnosed with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Acta Diabetol . 2021. doi:10.1007/s00592-021-01738-2
  • Preshaw PM , Alba AL , Herrera D , et al. Periodontitis and diabetes: a two-way relationship. Diabetologia . 2012;55(1):21–31. doi:10.1007/s00125-011-2342-y 22057194
  • Könönen E , Gursoy M , Gursoy UK . Periodontitis: a multifaceted disease of tooth-supporting tissues. J Clin Med . 2019;8(8):1135. doi:10.3390/jcm8081135
  • Chapple IL , Genco R ; working group 2 of the joint EFP/AAP workshop. Diabetes and periodontal diseases: consensus report of the joint EFP/AAP workshop on periodontitis and systemic diseases. J Periodontol . 2013;84(4Suppl):S106–12. doi:10.1902/jop.2013.1340011 23631572
  • Wang X , Wang H , Zhang T , Cai L , Kong C , He J . Current knowledge regarding the interaction between oral bone metabolic disorders and diabetes mellitus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) . 2020;11:536. doi:10.3389/fendo.2020.00536 32903738
  • Jain A , Chawla M , Kumar A , et al. Management of periodontal disease in patients with diabetes- good clinical practice guidelines: a joint statement by Indian society of periodontology and research society for the study of diabetes in India. J Indian Soc Periodontol . 2020;24(6):498–524. doi:10.4103/jisp.jisp_688_20 33424167
  • Negrato CA , Tarzia O , Jovanovič L , Chinellato LE . Periodontal disease and diabetes mellitus. J Appl Oral Sci . 2013;21(1):1–12. doi:10.1590/1678-7757201302106 23559105
  • Chang P-C , Lim LP . Interrelationships of periodontitis and diabetes: a review of the current literature. J Dent Sci . 2012;7(3):272–282. doi:10.1016/j.jds.2012.02.002
  • Sundar C , Ramalingam S , Mohan V , Pradeepa R , Ramakrishnan MJ . Periodontal therapy as an adjunctive modality for HbA1c reduction in type-2 diabetic patients. J Edu Health Promot . 2018;7:152. doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_66_18
  • Li Q , Hao S , Fang J , Xie J , Kong XH , Yang JX . Effect of non-surgical periodontal treatment on glycemic control of patients with diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Trials . 2015;16(1):291. doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0810-2 26137892
  • López-Pintor RM , Casañas E , González-Serrano J , et al. Xerostomia, hyposalivation, and salivary flow in diabetes patients. J Diabetes Res . 2016;2016:4372852. doi:10.1155/2016/4372852 27478847
  • Roi A , Rusu LC , Roi CI , et al. Approach for the diagnosis of systemic and oral diseases based on salivary biomolecules. Dis Markers . 2019;2019:8761860. doi:10.1155/2019/8761860 30906485
  • Verhulst MJL , Loos BG , Gerdes VEA , Teeuw WJ . Evaluating all potential oral complications of diabetes mellitus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) . 2019;10:56. doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00056 30962800
  • Al Mubarak S , Robert AA , Baskaradoss JK , et al. The prevalence of oral Candida infections in periodontitis patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Infect Public Health . 2013;6(4):296–301. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2012.12.007 23806705
  • Buranasin P , Mizutani K , Iwasaki K , Pawaputanon Na Mahasarakham C , Kido D , Takeda K . High glucose-induced oxidative stress impairs proliferation and migration of human gingival fibroblasts. PLoS One . 2018;13(8):e0201855. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201855 30092096
  • Casqueiro J , Casqueiro J , Alves C . Infections in patients with diabetes mellitus: a review of pathogenesis. Indian J Endocrinol Metab . 2012;16(Suppl1):S27–S36. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.94253 22701840
  • Mustăţea P , Bugă C , Doran H , et al. Soft tissue infections in diabetic patients. Chirurgia (Bucur) . 2018;113(5):651–667. doi:10.21614/chirurgia.113.5.651 30383992
  • Sharma K , Das D , Joshi M , Barman D , Sarma AJ . Deep neck space infections-A study in diabetic population in a tertiary care centre. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg . 2018;70(1):22–27. doi:10.1007/s12070-017-1196-0 29456938
  • Tibau AV , Grube D . Biological dentistry-whole body health shifting the paradigm in the 21st century. Glob J Otolaryngol . 2020;22(1):556079. doi:10.19080/GJO.2020.22.556079
  • Akhtar N , Saleem M , Mian FA , Shareef MJ , Hussain F . Head and neck infections; secondary to dental causes; diagnosis and treatment. Prof Med J . 2015;22:787–792.
  • Rathee M , Sapra A . Dental caries. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 [Updated 2021 3 12 ]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551699/. Accessed 4 17, 2021.
  • Jeong I‑H , Park M‑J . The association between diabetes mellitus and community periodontal index. Int J Appl Eng Res . 2017;12(10):2277‑81.
  • Sampaio N , Mello S , Alves C . Dental caries-associated risk factors and type 1 diabetes mellitus. Pediatr Endocrinol Diabetes Metab . 2011;17(3):152–157.22027069
  • Ferizi L , Dragidella F , Spahiu L , Begzati A , Kotori V . The influence of type 1 diabetes mellitus on dental caries and salivary composition. Int J Dent . 2018;2018:5780916. doi:10.1155/2018/5780916 30369949
  • Kapadia J , Dodamani A , Baviskar P , Karibasappa GN , Pathak P , Bezalwar A . Effect of sugar-free and regular toothpaste on salivary glucose and ph among type 2 diabetes- a randomized crossover trial. J Clin Diagn Res . 2017;11(7):ZC71–ZC75. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2017/25580.10250
  • Abikshyeet P , Ramesh V , Oza N . Glucose estimation in the salivary secretion of diabetes mellitus patients. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes . 2012;5:149–154. doi:10.2147/DMSO.S32112 22923999
  • Hariharavel V , Rao AP , Venugopal RN , Peter J . Diabetes, diet, and dental caries. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries . 2017;37(1):94. doi:10.1007/s13410-015-0400-6
  • Puputti S , Hoppu U , Sandell M . Taste sensitivity is associated with food consumption behavior but not with recalled pleasantness. Foods . 2019;8(10):444. doi:10.3390/foods8100444
  • Kinnamon SC . Taste receptor signaling - from tongues to lungs. Acta Physiol (Oxf) . 2012;204(2):158–168. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.2011.02308.x 21481196
  • Puputti S , Hoppu U , Sandell M , Aisala H . Factors explaining individual differences in taste sensitivity and taste modality recognition among Finnish adults. J Sens Stud . 2019;34(4):e12506. doi:10.1111/joss.12506
  • Pugnaloni S , Alia S , Mancini M , et al. A study on the relationship between type 2 diabetes and taste function in patients with good glycemic control. Nutrients . 2020;12(4):1112. doi:10.3390/nu12041112
  • Bhandare NN , Keny MS , Nevrekar RP , Bhandare PN . Diabetic tongue - could it be a diagnostic criterion? J Fam Med Prim Care . 2014;3(3):290–291. doi:10.4103/2249-4863.141654
  • Kamala KA , Sankethguddad S , Sujith SG , Tantradi P . Burning mouth syndrome. Indian J Palliat Care . 2016;22(1):74–79. doi:10.4103/0973-1075.173942 26962284
  • Nada A , Abdel Moneim W , Fakhr M , El Sawy S . Prevalence of burning mouth syndrome in a sample of Egyptian patients with diabetic neuropathy: a Cross-Sectional Hospital-Based Study. Adv Dent J . 2020;2(2):34–42. doi:10.21608/adjc.2020.23213.1050
  • Costa YM , Karlsson P , Bonjardim LR , et al. Trigeminal nociceptive function and oral somatosensory functional and structural assessment in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Sci Rep . 2019;9(1):169. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-37041-4 30655584
  • Dotiwala AK , Samra NS . Anatomy, head and neck, tongue. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 [Updated 2020 8 22 ]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507782/. Accessed 4 17, 2021.
  • Hsu PC , Wu HK , Huang YC , et al. The tongue features associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Medicine (Baltimore) . 2019;98(19):e15567. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000015567 31083226
  • Sudarshan R , Sree Vijayabala G , Samata Y , Ravikiran A . Newer classification system for fissured tongue: an epidemiological approach. J Trop Med . 2015;2015:262079. doi:10.1155/2015/262079 26457087
  • Villa A , Connell CL , Abati S . Diagnosis and management of xerostomia and hyposalivation. Ther Clin Risk Manag . 2014;11:45–51. doi:10.2147/TCRM.S76282 25653532
  • Bihari M , Srivastava R , Jyoti B , Mehrota V , Gupta M , Pradhan S . Median rhomboid glossitis with palatal kissing lesion-a case report. Bang J Dent Res Edu . 2014;4(2):94–97. doi:10.3329/bjdre.v4i2.20273
  • Ravindran R , Deepa MG , Sruthi AK , et al. Evaluation of oral health in type II diabetes mellitus patients. Oral Maxillofac Path J . 2015;6(1):525–531. doi:10.5005/10037-1030
  • Khandelwal V , Nayak PA , Nayak UA , Gupta A . Oral lichen planus in a young Indian child. BMJ Case Rep . 2013;2013(aug13 2):bcr2013010516. doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-010516
  • Weston G , Payette M . Update on lichen planus and its clinical variants. Int J Womens Dermatol . 2015;1(3):140–149. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2015.04.001 28491978
  • Gupta S , Jawanda MK . Oral lichen planus: an update on etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management. Indian J Dermatol . 2015;60(3):222–229. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.156315 26120146
  • Sahril N , Aris T , Mohd Asari AS , et al. Oral health-seeking behavior among Malaysians with type II diabetes. J Public Health Aspects . 2014;1(1):1. doi:10.7243/2055-7205-1-1
  • Arunkumar S , Amur S , Sambrani U , Burde KM . Survey on awareness and knowledge about the effect of diabetes mellitus on systemic and oral health in patients visiting general medicine outpatient department in dental hospital. J Krishna Inst Med Sci . 2015;4(2):100–106.
  • Badiah B . A preliminary survey on awareness of periodontal risk and oral health practices among diabetic patients in hospital Kuala Lumpur. Malaysian Dent J . 2012;34(1):1–7.
  • Aggarwal A , Panat SR . Oral health behavior and HbA1c in Indian adults with type 2 diabetes. J Oral Sci . 2012;54(4):293–301. doi:10.2334/josnusd.54.293 23221154
  • Bahammam MA . Periodontal health and diabetes awareness among Saudi diabetes patients. Patient Prefer Adherence . 2015;9:225–233. doi:10.2147/PPA.S79543 25673974
  • Al Amassi BY , Al Dakheel RS . Oral hygiene practice of adult diabetic patients and their awareness about oral health problems related to diabetes. J Dent Oral Hyg . 2017;9(2):8–14. doi:10.5897/JDOH2017.0219
  • Poudel P , Griffiths R , Wong VW , et al. Oral health knowledge, attitudes and care practices of people with diabetes: a systematic review. BMC Public Health . 2018;18(1):577. doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5485-7 29716561
  • Busui RP , Boulton AJM , Feldman EL , et al. Diabetic neuropathy: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care . 2017;40(1):136–154. doi:10.2337/dc16-2042 27999003
  • Weng YC , Tsai SS , Lyu RK , et al. Diabetic distal symmetrical polyneuropathy: correlation of clinical, laboratory, and electrophysiologic studies in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Res . 2020;2020:6356459. doi:10.1155/2020/6356459 32695829
  • Albers JW , Pop-Busui R . Diabetic neuropathy: mechanisms, emerging treatments, and subtypes. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep . 2014;14(8):473. doi:10.1007/s11910-014-0473-5 24954624
  • Dyck PJ , Albers JW , Andersen H , et al.; Toronto Expert Panel on Diabetic Neuropathy. Diabetic polyneuropathies: update on research definition, diagnostic criteria, and estimation of severity. Diabetes Metab Res Rev . 2011;27(7):620–628. doi:10.1002/dmrr.1226 21695763
  • Liu X , Xu Y , An M , Zeng Q . The risk factors for diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a meta-analysis. PLoS One . 2019;14(2):e0212574. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0212574 30785930
  • Alam U , Riley DR , Jugdey RS , et al. Diabetic neuropathy and gait: a review. Diabetes Ther . 2017;8(6):1253–1264. doi:10.1007/s13300-017-0295-y 28864841
  • Islam MR , Rahman T , Habib R , et al. Electrophysiological patterns of diabetic polyneuropathy: experience from a tertiary care hospital of Bangladesh. BIRDEM Med J . 2017;7(2):114–120. doi:10.3329/birdem.v7i2.32448
  • Javed S , Petropoulos IN , Alam U , Malik RA . Treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. Ther Adv Chronic Dis . 2015;6(1):15–28. doi:10.1177/2040622314552071 25553239
  • Arpith MN , Narayan V . Prevalence and determinants of peripheral neuropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Indian J Clin Anat Physiol . 2021;8(1):57–59. doi:10.1823/j.ijcap.2021.013
  • Vileikyte L , Leventhal H , Gonzalez JS , et al. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy and depressive symptoms: the association revisited. Diabetes Care . 2005;28(10):2378–2383. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.10.2378 16186266
  • Schreiber AK , Nones CF , Reis RC , Chichorro JG , Cunha JM . Diabetic neuropathic pain: physiopathology and treatment. World J Diabetes . 2015;6(3):432–444. doi:10.4239/wjd.v6.i3.432 25897354
  • Vinik A , Casellini C , Nevoret ML . Diabetic neuropathies. In: Feingold KR , Anawalt B , Boyce A , et al. editors. Endotext [Internet] . South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2018. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279175/. Accessed 4 17, 2021.
  • Zhou B , Lu Y , Hajifathalian K ; NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: a pooled analysis of 751 population-based studies with 4.4 million participants. Lancet . 2016;387(10027):1513–1530. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00618-8 27061677
  • Sardu C , Paolisso P , Sacra C , et al. Cardiac resynchronization therapy with a defibrillator (CRTd) in failing heart patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and treated by glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) therapy vs. conventional hypoglycemic drugs: arrhythmic burden, hospitalizations for heart failure, and CRTd responders rate. Cardiovasc Diabetol . 2018;17(1):137. doi:10.1186/s12933-018-0778-9 30348145
  • Sardu C , Barbieri M , Santamaria M , et al. Multipolar pacing by cardiac resynchronization therapy with a defibrillators treatment in type 2 diabetes mellitus failing heart patients: impact on responders rate, and clinical outcomes. Cardiovasc Diabetol . 2017;16(1):75. doi:10.1186/s12933-017-0554-2 28599667
  • Sardu C , Barbieri M , Balestrieri ML , et al. Thrombus aspiration in hyperglycemic ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients: clinical outcomes at 1-year follow-up. Cardiovasc Diabetol . 2018;17(1):152. doi:10.1186/s12933-018-0795-8 30497513
  • Sardu C , D’Onofrio N , Mauro C , Balestrieri ML , Marfella R . Thrombus aspiration in hyperglycemic patients with high inflammation levels in coronary thrombus. J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73(4):530–531. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2018.10.074 30704588
  • Galaviz KI , Narayan KMV , Lobelo F , Weber MB . Lifestyle and the prevention of type 2 diabetes: a status report. Am J Lifestyle Med . 2015;12(1):4–20. doi:10.1177/1559827615619159 30202378
  • Vieira-Potter VJ , Karamichos D , Lee DJ . Ocular complications of diabetes and therapeutic approaches. Biomed Res Int . 2016;2016:3801570. doi:10.1155/2016/3801570 27119078
  • Simó-Servat O , Hernández C , Simó R . Diabetic retinopathy in the context of patients with diabetes. Ophthalmic Res . 2019;62(4):211–217. doi:10.1159/000499541 31129667
  • Simó R , Hernández C ; European Consortium for the Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy (EUROCONDOR). Neurodegeneration in the diabetic eye: new insights and therapeutic perspectives. Trends Endocrinol Metab . 2014;25(1):23–33. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2013.09.005 24183659
  • Nentwich MM , Ulbig MW . Diabetic retinopathy - ocular complications of diabetes mellitus. World J Diabetes . 2015;6(3):489–499. doi:10.4239/wjd.v6.i3.489 25897358
  • Barot M , Gokulgandhi MR , Patel S , Mitra AK . Microvascular complications and diabetic retinopathy: recent advances and future implications. Future Med Chem . 2013;5(3):301–314. doi:10.4155/fmc.12.206 23464520
  • Fong DS , Aiello LP , Ferris FL 3rd , Klein R . Diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care . 2004;27(10):2540–2553. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.10.2540 15451934
  • Simó R , Hernández C . Advances in the medical treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care . 2009;32(8):1556–1562. doi:10.2337/dc09-0565 19638526
  • Kim K-S , Lee J-S , Park J-H , et al. Identification of novel biomarker for early detection of diabetic nephropathy. Biomedicines . 2021;9(5):457. doi:10.3390/biomedicines9050457 33922243
  • Rigalleau V , Lasseur C , Raffaitin C , et al. Normoalbuminuric renal-insufficient diabetic patients: a lower-risk group. Diabetes Care . 2007;30(8):2034–2039. doi:10.2337/dc07-0140 17485574
  • Alicic RZ , Rooney MT , Tuttle KR . Diabetic kidney disease: challenges, progress, and possibilities. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol . 2017;12(12):2032–2045. doi:10.2215/CJN.11491116 28522654
  • Fakhruddin S , Alanazi W , Jackson KE . Diabetes-induced reactive oxygen species: mechanism of their generation and role in renal injury. J Diabetes Res . 2017;2017:8379327. doi:10.1155/2017/8379327 28164134
  • Cao Z , Cooper ME . Pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. J Diabetes Investig . 2011;2(4):243–247. doi:10.1111/j.2040-1124.2011.00131.x
  • Park TS . How much glycemic control is needed to prevent progression of diabetic nephropathy? J Diabetes Investig . 2012;3(5):411–412. doi:10.1111/j.2040-1124.2012.00225.x
  • Williams ME , Garg R . Glycemic management in ESRD and earlier stages of CKD. Am J Kidney Dis . 2014;63(2 Suppl 2):S22–38. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2013.10.049 24461727
  • DeFronzo RA , Reeves WB , Awad AS . Pathophysiology of diabetic kidney disease: impact of SGLT2 inhibitors. Nat Rev Nephrol . 2021;17(5):319–334. doi:10.1038/s41581-021-00393-8 33547417
  • Phillips AO , Baboolal K , Riley S , et al. Association of prolonged hyperglycemia with glomerular hypertrophy and renal basement membrane thickening in the Goto Kakizaki model of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Kidney Dis . 2001;37(2):400–410. doi:10.1053/ajkd.2001.21322 11157383
  • Tervaert TW , Mooyaart AL , Amann K , et al.; Renal Pathology Society. Pathologic classification of diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol . 2010;21(4):556–563. doi:10.1681/ASN.2010010010 20167701
  • Lin YC , Chang YH , Yang SY , Wu KD , Chu TS . Update of pathophysiology and management of diabetic kidney disease. J Formos Med Assoc . 2018;117(8):662–675. doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2018.02.007 29486908