603
Views
45
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

A Vaccine Against Group B Streptococcus: Recent Advances

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon &
Pages 1263-1272 | Published online: 29 Apr 2020

References

  • O’Sullivan CP, Lamagni T, Patel D, et al. Group B streptococcal disease in UK and Irish infants younger than 90 days, 2014–15: a prospective surveillance study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):83–90. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30555-330497953
  • Sigaúque B, Kobayashi M, Vubil D, et al. Invasive bacterial disease trends and characterization of group B streptococcal isolates among young infants in southern Mozambique, 2001–2015. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0191193. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.019119329351318
  • Seale AC, Bianchi-Jassir F, Russell NJ, et al. Estimates of the burden of Group B Streptococcal disease worldwide for pregnant women, stillbirths, and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:S200–19. doi:10.1093/cid/cix66429117332
  • Raabe VN, Shane AL. Group B Streptococcus (Streptococcus agalactiae). Microbiol Spectr. 2019;7(2). doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0007-2018
  • Madrid L, Seale AC, Kohli-Lynch M, et al. Infant Group B streptococcal disease incidence and serotypes worldwide: systematic review and meta-analyses. J Infect Dis. 2017;65:S160–72. doi:10.1093/cid/cix656
  • Russell NJ, Seale AC, O’Driscoll M, et al. Maternal colonization with Group B Streptococcus and Serotype distribution worldwide: systematic review and meta-analyses. J Infect Dis. 2017;65:S100–11. doi:10.1093/cid/cix658
  • Lawn JE, Bianchi-Jassir F, Russell NJ, et al. Group B Streptococcal disease worldwide for pregnant women, stillbirths, and children: why, what, and how to undertake estimates? Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:S89–99. doi:10.1093/cid/cix65329117323
  • Unicef; World Health Organisation; The world Bank; United Nations. Levels and Trends in Child Mortality. Report 2019; 2019.
  • Verani JR, McGee L, Schrag SJ; Division of Bacterial Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease–revised guidelines from CDC, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59(RR–10):1–36.20075837
  • Le Doare K, O’Driscoll M, Turner K, et al. Intrapartum antibiotic chemoprophylaxis policies for the prevention of Group B Streptococcal disease worldwide: systematic review. J Infect Dis. 2017;65:S143–51. doi:10.1093/cid/cix654
  • Schrag SJ, Verani JR. Intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: experience in the United States and implications for a potential group B streptococcal vaccine. Vaccine. 2013;31:D20–D26. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.11.05623219695
  • O’Connor KA. Group B Streptococcal disease in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2007;40(6):361. doi:10.1177/000992280104000614
  • Castanys-Muñoz E, Martin MJ, Vazquez E. Building a beneficial microbiome from birth. Adv Nutr. 2016;7(2):323–330. doi:10.3945/an.115.01069426980815
  • Kerr CA, Grice DM, Tran CD, et al. Early life events influence whole-of-life metabolic health via gut microflora and gut permeability. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2015;41:326–340. doi:10.3109/1040841X.2013.83786324645635
  • Kumar M, Singh P, Murugesan S, et al. Microbiome as an immunological modifier. Methods Mol Biol. 2020;595–638.31502171
  • Thwaites CL, Beeching NJ, Newton CR. Maternal and neonatal tetanus. Lancet. 2015;385(9965):362–370. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60236-125149223
  • Madhi SA, Cutland CL, Kuwanda L, et al. Influenza vaccination of pregnant women and protection of their infants. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(10):918–931. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa140148025184864
  • Amirthalingam G, Andrews N, Campbell H, et al. Effectiveness of maternal pertussis vaccination in England: an observational study. Lancet. 2014;384(9953):1521–1528. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60686-325037990
  • Davies HG, Carreras-Abad C, Le Doare K, Heath PT. Group B Streptococcus: trials and Tribulations. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(6SSuppl 1):S72–6. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000232831205250
  • Bardají A, MacDonald NE, Omer SB, Aguado T. Maternal immunization: a call to accelerate progress. Vaccine. 2019;37(22):2882–2883. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.04.03131014962
  • Vekemans J, Moorthy V, Friede M, et al. Maternal immunization against Group B streptococcus: World Health Organization research and development technological roadmap and preferred product characteristics. Vaccine. 2018.
  • Heath PT. Status of vaccine research and development of vaccines for GBS. Vaccine. 2016;34(26):2876–2879. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.12.07226988258
  • Dangor Z, Lala SG, Kwatra G, Madhi SA. Group B Streptococcus: developing a correlate of protection for a vaccine against neonatal infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2016;29(3):262–267. doi:10.1097/QCO.000000000000026626926474
  • Fabbrini M, Rigat F, Rinaudo CD, et al. The protective value of maternal Group B Streptococcus antibodies: quantitative and functional analysis of naturally acquired responses to capsular polysaccharides and pilus proteins in European maternal sera. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(6):746–753. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw37727402816
  • Dangor Z, Kwatra G, Izu A, et al. Association between maternal Group B Streptococcus surface-protein antibody concentrations and invasive disease in their infants. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2015;14(12):1651–1660. doi:10.1586/14760584.2015.108530726364978
  • World Health Organization (WHO). WHO preferred product characteristics for Group B Streptococcus vaccines. 2017;18 Available from: http://www.who.int/immunization/documents/en/. Accessed 316, 2020.
  • Rajagopal L. Understanding the regulation of Group B Streptococcal virulence factors. Future Microbiol. 2009;4(2):201–221. doi:10.2217/17460913.4.2.20119257847
  • Herbert MA, Beveridge CJE, Saunders NJ. Bacterial virulence factors in neonatal sepsis: group B streptococcus. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2004;17:225–229. doi:10.1097/00001432-200406000-0000915166825
  • Vornhagen J, Adams Waldorf KM, Rajagopal L. Perinatal Group B Streptococcal infections: virulence factors, immunity, and prevention strategies. Trends Microbiol. 2017;25:919–931. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2017.05.01328633864
  • Nuccitelli A, Rinaudo CD, Maione D. Group B Streptococcus vaccine: state of the art. Ther Adv Vaccin. 2015;3(3):76–90. doi:10.1177/2051013615579869
  • Korir ML, Manning SD, Davies HD. Intrinsic maturational neonatal immune deficiencies and susceptibility to group B streptococcus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2017;30:973–989. doi:10.1128/CMR.00019-1728814408
  • Rosini R, Margarit I. Biofilm formation by Streptococcus agalactiae: influence of environmental conditions and implicated virulence factor. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2015;5. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2015.00006
  • Di Xia F, Mallet A, Caliot E, Gao C, Trieu-Cuot P, Dramsi S. Capsular polysaccharide of Group B Streptococcus mediates biofilm formation in the presence of human plasma. Microbes Infect. 2015;17(1):71–76. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2014.10.00725448634
  • D’Urzo N, Martinelli M, Pezzicoli A, et al. Acidic pH strongly enhances in vitro biofilm formation by a subset of hypervirulent ST-17 Streptococcus agalactiae strains. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2014;80(7):2176–2185. doi:10.1128/AEM.03627-1324487536
  • Derré-Bobillot A, Cortes-Perez NG, Yamamoto Y, et al. Nuclease A (Gbs0661), an extracellular nuclease of Streptococcus agalactiae, attacks the neutrophil extracellular traps and is needed for full virulence. Mol Microbiol. 2013;89(3):518–531. doi:10.1111/mmi.2013.89.issue-323772975
  • Boldenow E, Gendrin C, Ngo L, et al. Group B Streptococcus circumvents neutrophils and neutrophil extracellular traps during amniotic cavity invasion and preterm labor. Sci Immunol. 2016;1(4). doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.aah6817.
  • Kothary V, Doster RS, Rogers LM, et al. Group B streptococcus induces neutrophil recruitment to gestational tissues and elaboration of extracellular traps and nutritional immunity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2017;7. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2017.00019
  • Amulic B, Hayes G. Neutrophil extracellular traps. Curr Biol. 2011;21:R297–R298. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.02121549944
  • Ferrieri P, Flores AE. Surface protein expression in Group B streptococcal invasive isolates. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1997;635–637.9331732
  • Slotved HC, Kong F, Lambertsen L, Sauer S, Gilbert GL. Serotype IX, a proposed new Streptococcus agalactiae serotype. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(9):2929–2936. doi:10.1128/JCM.00117-0717634306
  • Berti F, Campisi E, Toniolo C, et al. Structure of the type IX Group B Streptococcus capsular polysaccharide and its evolutionary relationship with types V and VII. J Biol Chem. 2014;289(34):23437–23448. doi:10.1074/jbc.M114.56797424990951
  • Teatero S, Athey TBT, Van Caeseele P, et al. Emergence of serotype IV group B streptococcus adult invasive disease in Manitoba and saskatchewan, Canada, is driven by clonal sequence type 459 strains. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53(9):2919–2926. doi:10.1128/JCM.01128-1526135871
  • Ferrieri P, Lynfield R, Creti R, Flore AE. Serotype IV and invasive group B streptococcus disease in neonates, Minnesota, USA, 2000-20101. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19(4):553–558. doi:10.3201/eid1904.121572
  • Puopolo KM, Madoff LC. Type IV neonatal early-onset group B streptococcal disease in a United States hospital. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(4):1360–1362. doi:10.1128/JCM.02487-0617267636
  • Martins ER, Pessanha MA, Ramirez M, et al. Analysis of group B streptococcal isolates from infants and pregnant women in Portugal revealing two lineages with enhanced invasiveness. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(10):3224–3229. doi:10.1128/JCM.01182-0717699641
  • Kobayashi M, Vekemans J, Baker CJ, Ratner AJ, Le Doare K, Schrag SJ. Group B Streptococcus vaccine development: present status and future considerations, with emphasis on perspectives for low and middle income countries. F1000Research. 2016;5:2355. doi:10.12688/f1000research27803803
  • Bröker M. Potential protective immunogenicity of tetanus toxoid, diphtheria toxoid and Cross Reacting Material 197 (CRM197) when used as carrier proteins in glycoconjugates. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2016;12:664–667. doi:10.1080/21645515.2015.108604826327602
  • Baker CJ, Rench MA, McInnes P. Immunization of pregnant women with group B streptococcal type III capsular polysaccharide-tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine. Vaccine. 2003;21:3468–3472. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00353-012850362
  • Baker CJ, Paoletti LC, Rench MA, Guttormsen H, Edwards MS, Kasper DL. Immune Response of Healthy Women to 2 Different Group B Streptococcal Type V Capsular Polysaccharide–Protein Conjugate Vaccines. J Infect Dis. 2004;189(6):1103–1112. doi:10.1086/jid.2004.189.issue-614999615
  • Baker CJ, Paoletti LC, Wessels MR, Guttormsen HK, Rench MA, Hickman ME. Safety and immunogenicity of capsular polysaccharide-tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccines for group B streptococcal types Ia and Ib. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(1):142–150. doi:10.1086/3145749841833
  • Baker CJ, Paoletti LC, Rench MA, et al. Use of capsular polysaccharide–tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine for Type II Group B Streptococcus in Healthy Women. J Infect Dis. 2000;182(4):1129–1138. doi:10.1086/jid.2000.182.issue-410979909
  • Kasper DL, Paoletti LC, Wessels MR, et al. Immune response to type III group B streptococcal polysaccharide- tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine. J Clin Invest. 1996;98(10):2308–2314. doi:10.1172/JCI1190428941648
  • Madhi SA, Koen A, Cutland CL, et al. Antibody kinetics and response to routine vaccinations in infants born to women who received an investigational trivalent Group B Streptococcus Polysaccharide CRM197 -Conjugate Vaccine during Pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(11):1897–1904. doi:10.1093/cid/cix66629029127
  • Buurman ET, Timofeyeva Y, Gu J, et al. A novel hexavalent capsular polysaccharide conjugate vaccine (GBS6) for the Prevention of Neonatal Group B Streptococcal Infections by Maternal Immunization. J Infect Dis. 2019;220(1):105–115. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiz06230778554
  • Fabbrini M, Rigat F, Tuscano G, et al. Functional activity of maternal and cord antibodies elicited by an investigational group B Streptococcus trivalent glycoconjugate vaccine in pregnant women. J Infect. 2018;76(5):449–456. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2018.01.00629374589
  • Chiarot E, Spagnuolo A, Maccari S, et al. Protective effect of Group B Streptococcus type-III polysaccharide conjugates against maternal colonization, ascending infection and neonatal transmission in rodent models. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1). doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20609-5.
  • Kwatra G, Adrian PV, Shiri T, et al. Serotype-specific cell-mediated immunity associated with clearance of homotypic Group B Streptococcus Rectovaginal Colonization in Pregnant Women. J Infect Dis. 2016;213:1923–1926. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiw05627029777
  • Le Doare K, Faal A, Jaiteh M, et al. Association between functional antibody against Group B Streptococcus and maternal and infant colonization in a Gambian cohort. Vaccine. 2017;35(22):2970–2978. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.04.01328449969
  • Leroux-Roels G, Maes C, Willekens J, et al. A randomized, observer-blind Phase Ib study to identify formulations and vaccine schedules of a trivalent Group B Streptococcus vaccine for use in non-pregnant and pregnant women. Vaccine. 2016;34(15):1786–1791. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.02.04426928074
  • Leroux-Roels G, Bebia Z, Maes C, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a second dose of an investigational maternal trivalent Group B streptococcus vaccine in non-pregnant women 4–6 years after a first dose: results from a Phase 2 trial. Clin Infect Dis. pii: ciz73.
  • Kobayashi M, Schrag SJ, Alderson MR, et al. WHO consultation on group B Streptococcus vaccine development: report from a meeting held on 27–28 April 2016. Vaccine. 2016;37:7307–7314.28017431
  • Lin FC, Philips JB III, Azimi PH, et al. Level of maternal antibody required to protect neonates against early‐onset disease caused by Group B Streptococcus Type Ia: a Multicenter, Seroepidemiology Study. J Infect Dis. 2001;184(8):1022–1028. doi:10.1086/32335011574917
  • Lin FC, Weisman LE, Azimi PH, et al. Level of maternal IgG Anti–Group B Streptococcus Type III antibody correlated with protection of neonates against early‐onset disease caused by this pathogen. J Infect Dis. 2004;190(5):928–934. doi:10.1086/42275615295698
  • Baker CJ, Carey VJ, Rench MA, et al. Maternal antibody at delivery protects neonates from early onset group B streptococcal disease. J Infect Dis. 2014;209(5):781–788. doi:10.1093/infdis/jit54924133184
  • Carreras-Abad C, Cochet M, Hall T, et al. Developing a serocorrelate of protection against invasive group B streptococcus disease in pregnant women: a feasibility study. Health Technol Assess. 2019 Dec;23(67):1–40. doi:10.3310/hta23670
  • Le Doare K, Kampmann B, Vekemans J, et al. Serocorrelates of protection against infant group B streptococcus disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(5):e162–71. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30659-530683467
  • Parikh SR, Andrews NJ, Beebeejaun K, et al. Effectiveness and impact of a reduced infant schedule of 4CMenB vaccine against group B meningococcal disease in England: a national observational cohort study. Lancet. 2016;388(10061):2775–2782. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31921-328100432
  • Pavliakova D, Giardina PC, Moghazeh S, et al. Development and validation of 13-plex luminex-based assay for measuring human serum antibodies to Streptococcus pneumoniae capsular polysaccharides. mSphere. 2018;3(4):e00128–18. doi:10.1128/mSphere.00128-1830089645
  • Buffi G, Galletti B, Stella M, et al. Novel multiplex immunoassays for quantification of IgG against Group B Streptococcus Capsular Polysaccharides in Human Sera. mSphere. 2019;4(4). doi:10.1128/mSphere.00273-19.
  • Baker CJ, Kasper DL. Correlation of maternal antibody deficiency with susceptibility to neonatal Group B Streptococcal infection. N Engl J Med. 2010;294(14):753–756. doi:10.1056/NEJM197604012941404
  • Brigtsen AK, Kasper DL, Baker CJ, Jennings HJ, Guttormsen H. Induction of cross-reactive antibodies by immunization of healthy adults with Types Ia and Ib Group B Streptococcal Polysaccharide–Tetanus Toxoid Conjugate Vaccines. J Infect Dis. 2002;185(9):1277–1284. doi:10.1086/jid.2002.185.issue-912001045
  • Romero-Steiner S, Frasch CE, Carlone G, Fleck RA, Goldblatt D, Nahm MH. Use of opsonophagocytosis for serological evaluation of pneumococcal vaccines. Clin Vaccin Immunol. 2006;13:165–169. doi:10.1128/CVI.13.2.165-169.2006
  • Fleck RA, Romero-Steiner S, Nahm MH. Use of HL-60 cell line to measure opsonic capacity of pneumococcal antibodies. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2005;12:19–27. doi:10.1128/CDLI.12.1.19-27.200515642980
  • Kim KH, Yu J, Nahm MH. Efficiency of a pneumococcal opsonophagocytic killing assay improved by multiplexing and by coloring colonies. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2003;10(4):616–621. doi:10.1128/cdli.10.4.616-621.200312853394
  • Romero-Steiner S, Frasch C, Concepcion N, et al. Multilaboratory evaluation of a viability assay for measurement of opsonophagocytic antibodies specific to the capsular polysaccharides of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2003;10(6):1019–1024. doi:10.1128/cdli.10.6.1019-1024.200314607861
  • Choi MJ, Noh JY, Cheong HJ, et al. Development of a multiplexed opsonophagocytic killing assay (MOPA) for group B Streptococcus. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2018;14(1):67–73. doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.137737928933634
  • Konini A, Kang M, Moghadas SM. Simulating immune interference on the effect of a bivalent glycoconjugate vaccine against Haemophilus influenzae Serotypes “a” and “b.”. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2016;2016:1–8. doi:10.1155/2016/5486869
  • Borrow R, Dagan R, Zepp F, Hallander H, Poolman J. Glycoconjugate vaccines and immune interactions, and implications for vaccination schedules. Expert Rev Vaccin. 2011;10:1621–1631. doi:10.1586/erv.11.142
  • Flores AR, Galloway-Peña J, Sahasrabhojane P, et al. Sequence type 1 group B Streptococcus, an emerging cause of invasive disease in adults, evolves by small genetic changes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(20):6431–6436. doi:10.1073/pnas.150472511225941374
  • Teatero S, Ferrieri P, Martin I, Demczuk W, CGeer A, Fittipaldi N. Serotype distribution, population structure, and antimicrobial resistance of group b streptococcus strains recovered from colonized pregnant women. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55(2):412–422. doi:10.1128/JCM.01615-1627852675
  • Bellais S, Six A, Fouet A, et al. Capsular switching in group B streptococcus CC17 hypervirulent clone: a future challenge for polysaccharide vaccine development. J Infect Dis. 2012;206(11):1745–1752. doi:10.1093/infdis/jis60523002446
  • Areschoug T, Stålhammar-Carlemalm M, Larsson C, Lindahl G. Group B streptococcal surface proteins as targets for protective antibodies: identification of two novel proteins in strains of serotype V. Infect Immunol. 1999;67(12):6350–6357.10569749
  • Furfaro LL, Chang BJ, Payne MS. Perinatal streptococcus agalactiae epidemiology and surveillance targets. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2018;31. doi:10.1128/CMR.00049-18
  • Lindahl G, Stålhammar-Carlemalm M, Areschoug T. Surface proteins of Streptococcus agalactiae and related proteins in other bacterial pathogens. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2005;18:102–127. doi:10.1128/CMR.18.1.102-127.200515653821
  • Smith TC, Roehl SA, Pillai P, Li S, Marrs CF, Foxman B. Distribution of novel and previously investigated virulence genes in colonizing and invasive isolates of Streptococcus agalactiae. Epidemiol Infect. 2007;135(6):1046–1054. doi:10.1017/S095026880600751517156495
  • Erdogan S, Fagan PK, Talay SR, et al. Molecular analysis of group B protective surface protein, a new cell surface protective antigen of group B streptococci. Infect Immunol. 2002;70(2):803–811. doi:10.1128/IAI.70.2.803-811.200211796614
  • Maeland JA, Afset JE, Lyng RV, Radtke A. Survey of immunological features of the alpha-like proteins of streptococcus agalactiae. Clin Vaccin Immunol. 2015;22:153–159. doi:10.1128/CVI.00643-14
  • Lin SM, Zhi Y, Ahn KB, Lim S, Seo HS. Status of group B streptococcal vaccine development. Clin Exp Vaccin Res. 2018;7(1):76–81. doi:10.7774/cevr.2018.7.1.76
  • Seo HS, Minasov G, Seepersaud R, et al. Characterization of fibrinogen binding by glycoproteins Srr1 and Srr2 of Streptococcus agalactiae. J Biol Chem. 2013;288(50):35982–35996. doi:10.1074/jbc.M113.51335824165132
  • Seo HS, Mu R, Kim BJ, Doran KS, Sullam PM. Binding of Glycoprotein Srr1 of Streptococcus agalactiae to fibrinogen promotes attachment to brain endothelium and the development of meningitis. PLoS Pathog. 2012;8(10):e1002947. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.100294723055927
  • Wang NY, Patras KA, Seo HS, et al. Group B streptococcal serine-rich repeat proteins promote interaction with fibrinogen and vaginal colonization. J Infect Dis. 2014;210:982–991. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu15124620021
  • Lin SM, Jang AY, Zhi Y, et al. Vaccination with a latch peptide provides serotypeindependent protection against group B streptococcus infection in mice. J Infect Dis. 2018;217(1):93–102. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix565
  • Bohnsack JF, Widjaja K, Ghazizadeh S, et al. A role for C5 and C5a-ase in the acute neutrophil response to Group B Streptococcal infections. J Infect Dis. 1997;175(4):847–855. doi:10.1086/jid.1997.175.issue-49086140
  • Santillan DA, Andracki ME, Hunter SK. Protective immunization in mice against group B streptococci using encapsulated C5a peptidase. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;198(1):114.e1–114.e6. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2007.06.003
  • Santillan DA, Rai KK, Santillan MK, Krishnamachari Y, Salem AK, Hunter SK. Efficacy of polymeric encapsulated C5a peptidasebased group B streptococcus vaccines in a murine model. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011;205:249.e1–249.e8.
  • Nuccitelli A, Cozzi R, Gourlay LJ, et al. Structure-based approach to rationally design a chimeric protein for an effective vaccine against Group B Streptococcus infections. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(25):10278–10283. doi:10.1073/pnas.110659010821593422
  • Edwards MS, Rench MA, Rinaudo CD, et al. Immune responses to invasive group B streptococcal disease in adults. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(11):1877–1883. doi:10.3201/eid2211.16091427767008
  • Madhi SA, Dangor Z, Heath PT, et al. Considerations for a phase-III trial to evaluate a group B Streptococcus polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccine in pregnant women for the prevention of early- and late-onset invasive disease in young-infants. Vaccine. 2013;31:D52–D57. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.02.02923973347
  • Heath PT, Culley FJ, Jones CE, et al. Group B streptococcus and respiratory syncytial virus immunisation during pregnancy: a landscape analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17:e223–34. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30232-328433702
  • JUNO project [homepage on the Internet]. Available from: https://www.sanger.ac.uk/science/collaboration/juno-global-genomic-survey-streptococcus-agalactiae. Accessed 316, 2020.
  • Heyderman RS, Madhi SA, French N, et al. Group B streptococcus vaccination in pregnant women with or without HIV in Africa: a non-randomised phase 2, open-label, multicentre trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(5):546–555. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00484-326869376
  • Jones CE, Calvert A, Le Doare K. Vaccination in pregnancy - Recent developments. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2018;37(2):191–193. doi:10.1097/INF.000000000000182229135826
  • Dauby N, Chamekh M, Melin P, Slogrove AL, Goetghebuer T. Increased risk of group B streptococcus invasive infection in HIV-exposed but uninfected infants: a review of the evidence and possible mechanisms. Front Immunol. 2016;7. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00505
  • Wilder-Smith A, Longini I, Zuber PL, et al. The public health value of vaccines beyond efficacy: methods, measures and outcomes. BMC Med. 2017;15(1). doi:10.1186/s12916-017-0911-8.
  • Mohle Boetani JC, Schuchat A, Plikaytis BD, Smith JD, Broome CV. Comparison of prevention strategies for neonatal Group B streptococcal infection: a population-based economic analysis. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 1993;270(12):1442–1448. doi:10.1001/jama.1993.03510120064032
  • Kim SY, Russell LB, Park J, et al. Cost-effectiveness of a potential group B streptococcal vaccine program for pregnant women in South Africa. Vaccine. 2014;32(17):1954–1963. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.01.06224530145
  • Russell LB, Kim SY, Cosgriff B, et al. Cost-effectiveness of maternal GBS immunization in low-income sub-Saharan Africa. Vaccine. 2017;35(49):6905–6914. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.07.10829129451
  • Ahmed N, Giorgakoudi K, Usuf E, et al. Potential cost-effectiveness of a maternal Group B streptococcal vaccine in The Gambia. Vaccine. 2020;38(15):3096–3104. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.02.071.