Climate Change and Infections on the Move in North America

References

• US GCRP. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Watts N, Amann M, Arnell N, et al. The 2020 report of the lancet countdown on health and climate change: responding to converging crises. Lancet. 2021;397(10269):129–170. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32290-X33278353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bressler RD. The mortality cost of carbon. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):4467. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24487-w34326326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meehl GA, Stocker TF, Collins WD, et al. Global Climate Projections. Chapter. 2007;10:1254.
   Google Scholar
• US GCRP. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume Ii: Report-In-Brief. Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Rogelj J, Popp A, Calvin KV, et al. Scenarios towards limiting global mean temperature increase below 1.5 °C. Nat Clim Chang. 2018;8(4):325–332. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0091-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monaghan AJ, Sampson KM, Steinhoff DF, et al. The potential impacts of 21st century climatic and population changes on human exposure to the virus vector mosquito Aedes Aegypti. Clim Change. 2016;146(3–4):487–500. doi:10.1007/s10584-016-1679-029610543
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verner G, Schütte S, Knop J, Sankoh O, Sauerborn R. Health in climate change research from 1990 to 2014: positive trend, but still underperforming. Glob Health Action. 2016;9(1):30723. doi:10.3402/gha.v9.3072327339855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith K, Woodward A, Campbell-Lendrum D, et al. Human Health: impacts, Adaptation, and Co-Benefits. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group Ii to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press; 2014:709–754.
   Google Scholar
• Castillo F, Mora AM, Kayser GL, et al. Environmental health threats to Latino migrant farmworkers. Annu Rev Public Health. 2021;42(1):257–276. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-012420-10501433395542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riden HE, Giacinto R, Wadsworth G, Rainwater J, Andrews T, Pinkerton KE. Wildfire smoke exposure: awareness and safety responses in the agricultural workplace. J Agromedicine. 2020;25(3):330–338. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2020.172569932043423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friel S, Schram A, Townsend B. The nexus between international trade, food systems, malnutrition and climate change. Nature Food. 2020;1(1):51–58. doi:10.1038/s43016-019-0014-0
   Google Scholar
• Mahapatra B, Walia M, Rao CAR, Raju BMK, Saggurti N. Vulnerability of agriculture to climate change increases the risk of child malnutrition: evidence from a large-scale observational study in India. PLoS One. 2021;16(6):e0253637. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.025363734181668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry HL, Waite TD, Dear KBG, Capon AG, Murray V. The case for systems thinking about climate change and mental health. Nat Clim Chang. 2018;8(4):282–290. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0102-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cianconi P, Betrò S, Janiri L. The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:74. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.0007432210846
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vicedo-Cabrera AM, Scovronick N, Sera F, et al. The burden of heat-related mortality attributable to recent human-induced climate change. Nat Clim Chang. 2021;11(6):492–500. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01058-x34221128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson BG, Bell ML. Weather-related mortality: how heat, cold, and heat waves affect mortality in the United States. Epidemiology. 2009;20(2):205–213. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e318190ee0819194300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limaye VS, Vargo J, Harkey M, Holloway T, Patz JA. Climate change and heat-related excess mortality in the eastern USA. EcoHealth. 2018;15(3):485–496. doi:10.1007/s10393-018-1363-030159651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidyanathan A, Malilay J, Schramm P, Saha S. Heat-related deaths—United States, 2004–2018. Morbidity Mortality Weekly Rep. 2020;69(24):729. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6924a1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos-Lozada AR, Howard JT. Use of death counts from vital statistics to calculate excess deaths in Puerto Rico following hurricane Maria. JAMA. 2018;320(14):1491–1493. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.1092930073274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward AJ, Samet JM. Climate Change, Hurricanes, and Health. American Public Health Association; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Zakrison TL, Valdés DM, Shultz JM. The medical, public health, and emergency response to the impact of 2017 hurricane Irma in Cuba. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2020;14(1):10–17. doi:10.1017/dmp.2019.7131359852
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramesh B, Jagger MA, Zaitchik B, et al. Emergency department visits associated with satellite observed flooding during and following hurricane Harvey. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2021;31(5):832–841. doi:10.1038/s41370-021-00361-134267308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu R, Yu P, Abramson MJ, et al. Wildfires, global climate change, and human health. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(22):2173–2181. doi:10.1056/NEJMsr202898533034960
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finlay SE, Moffat A, Gazzard R, Baker D, Murray V. Health impacts of wildfires. PLoS Curr. 2012;1:4.
   Google Scholar
• Sorensen C, House JA, O’Dell K, et al. Associations between wildfire-related Pm2. 5 and intensive care unit admissions in the United States, 2006–2015. GeoHealth. 2021;5(5):e2021GH000385. doi:10.1029/2021GH000385
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Sheridan SC, Birkhead GS, et al. Power outage: an ignored risk factor for COPD exacerbations. Chest. 2020;158(6):2346–2357. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2020.05.55532502591
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tumin R. Winter weather has disrupted hundreds of thousands of Us vaccinations. New York City, NY: New York Times; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Huntjens P, Nachbar K. Climate change as a threat multiplier for human disaster and conflict. Hague Inst Global Justice. 2015;1:548.
   Google Scholar
• Gorris ME, Treseder KK, Zender CS, Randerson JT. Expansion of Coccidioidomycosis endemic regions in the United States in response to climate change. GeoHealth. 2019;3(10):308–327. doi:10.1029/2019GH00020932159021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nnadi NE, Carter DA. Climate change and the emergence of fungal pathogens. PLoS Pathog. 2021;17(4):e1009503. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.100950333914854
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoberg EP, Brooks DR. Evolution in action: climate change, biodiversity dynamics and emerging infectious disease. Philosophical Trans Royal Soc B. 2015;370(1665):20130553. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0553
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beard CB, Eisen RJ, Barker CM, et al. Ch. 5: vectorborne diseases. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program; 2016:129–156.
   Google Scholar
• UCAR Center for Science Education. Climate change: regional impacts. UCAR; 2021. Available from: https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-change-impacts/regional. Accessed July 15, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Palazzi E, Mortarini L, Terzago S, von Hardenberg J. Elevation-dependent warming in global climate model simulations at high spatial resolution. Climate Dynamics. 2019;52(5):2685–2702. doi:10.1007/s00382-018-4287-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen-Gammon JW, Zhang F, Odins AM, Myoung B. Extreme rainfall in Texas: patterns and predictability. Phys Geography. 2005;26(5):340–364. doi:10.2747/0272-3646.26.5.340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risser MD, Wehner MF. Attributable human-induced changes in the likelihood and magnitude of the observed extreme precipitation during hurricane Harvey. Geophys Res Lett. 2017;44(24):12,457–412,464. doi:10.1002/2017GL075888
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emanuel K. Assessing the present and future probability of hurricane Harvey’s rainfall. Proc National Acad Sci. 2017;114(48):12681. doi:10.1073/pnas.1716222114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith A. U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters in Historical Context. NCEI/NOAA; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Muhling BA, Jacobs J, Stock Ca, Gaitan CF, Saba VS. Projections of the future occurrence, distribution, and seasonality of three vibrio species in the Chesapeake Bay under a high-emission climate change scenario. GeoHealth. 2017;1(7):278–296. doi:10.1002/2017GH00008932158993
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis BJK, Corrigan AE, Sun Z, et al. Analysis of traceback investigations for Vibrio Parahaemolyticus Infections (Vibriosis) and pre-harvest environmental conditions in Washington State, 2013–2018. Sci Total Environ. 2021;752:141650. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.14165032898797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escobar LE, Ryan SJ, Stewart-Ibarra AM, et al. A global map of suitability for coastal Vibrio Cholerae under current and future climate conditions. Acta Trop. 2015;149:202–211. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.05.02826048558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randa Mark A, Polz Martin F, Lim E. Effects of temperature and salinity on Vibrio Vulnificus population dynamics as assessed by quantitative PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004;70(9):5469–5476. doi:10.1128/AEM.70.9.5469-5476.200415345434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackbusch S, Wichels A, Gimenez L, Döpke H, Gerdts G. Potentially human pathogenic vibrio spp. in a coastal transect: occurrence and multiple virulence factors. Sci Total Environ. 2020;707:136113. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.13611331864001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logar-Henderson C, Ling R, Tuite AR, Fisman DN. Effects of large-scale oceanic phenomena on non-cholera vibriosis incidence in the United States: implications for climate change. Epidemiol Infect. 2019;147:e243–e243. doi:10.1017/S095026881900131631364581
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janda JM, Newton AE, Bopp CA. Vibriosis. Clin Lab Med. 2015;35(2):273–288. doi:10.1016/j.cll.2015.02.00726004642
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dechet AM, Yu PA, Koram N, Painter J. Nonfoodborne vibrio infections: an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States, 1997–2006. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(7):970–976. doi:10.1086/52914818444811
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ralston EP, Kite-Powell H, Beet A. An estimate of the cost of acute health effects from food- and water-borne marine pathogens and toxins in the USA. J Water Health. 2011;9(4):680–694. doi:10.2166/wh.2011.15722048428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weis KE, Hammond RM, Hutchinson R, Blackmore CGM. Vibrio illness in Florida, 1998–2007. Epidemiol Infect. 2011;139(4):591–598. doi:10.1017/S095026881000135420546636
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newton A, Kendall M, Vugia DJ, Henao OL, Mahon BE. Increasing rates of vibriosis in the United States, 1996–2010: review of surveillance data from 2 systems. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(5):S391–S395. doi:10.1093/cid/cis24322572659
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones EH, Feldman KA, Palmer A, Butler E, Blythe D, Mitchell CS. Vibrio infections and surveillance in Maryland, 2002–2008. Public Health Rep. 2013;128(6):537–545. doi:10.1177/00333549131280061324179265
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoder JS, Eddy BA, Visvesvara GS, Capewell L, Beach MJ. The epidemiology of primary amoebic Meningoencephalitis in the USA, 1962–2008. Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138(7):968–975. doi:10.1017/S095026880999101419845995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capewell LG, Harris AM, Yoder JS, et al. Diagnosis, clinical course, and treatment of primary amoebic Meningoencephalitis in the United States, 1937–2013. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2015;4(4):e68–e75. doi:10.1093/jpids/piu10326582886
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gharpure R, Gleason M, Salah Z, et al. Geographic range of recreational water-associated primary amebic Meningoencephalitis, United States, 1978–2018. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021;27(1):271–274. doi:10.3201/eid2701.20211933350926
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mwachui MA, Crump L, Hartskeerl R, Zinsstag J, Hattendorf J. Environmental and behavioural determinants of leptospirosis transmission: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(9):e0003843. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000384326379035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa F, Hagan JE, Calcagno J, et al. Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(9):e0003898. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000389826379143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naing C, Reid SA, Aye SN, Htet NH, Ambu S. Risk factors for human leptospirosis following flooding: a meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS One. 2019;14(5):e0217643. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.021764331141558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaynor K, Katz AR, Park SY, Nakata M, Clark TA, Effler PV. Leptospirosis on Oahu: an outbreak associated with flooding of a university campus. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;76(5):882–886. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.88217488909
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Health. Leptospirosis. Department of Health; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Katz AR, Sasaki DM, Mumm AH, Escamilla J, Middleton CR, Romero SE. Leptospirosis on Oahu: an outbreak among military personnel associated with recreational exposure. Mil Med. 1997;162(2):101–104. doi:10.1093/milmed/162.2.1019038027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amilasan A-ST, Ujiie M, Suzuki M, et al. Outbreak of Leptospirosis after Flood, the Philippines, 2009. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(1):91–94. doi:10.3201/eid1801.10189222257492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau CL, Smythe LD, Craig SB, Weinstein P. Climate Change, Flooding, Urbanisation and Leptospirosis: fuelling the Fire? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2010;104(10):631–638. doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.07.00220813388
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timmusk S, Nevo E, Ayele F, Noe S, Niinemets Y. Fighting Fusarium Pathogens in the Era of Climate Change: a Conceptual Approach. Pathogens. 2020;9(6):419. doi:10.3390/pathogens9060419
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ortoneda M, Guarro J, Madrid Marta P, et al. Fusarium Oxysporum as a Multihost Model for the Genetic Dissection of Fungal Virulence in Plants and Mammals. Infect Immun. 2004;72(3):1760–1766. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.3.1760-1766.200414977985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertero A, Moretti A, Spicer LJ, Caloni F. Fusarium Molds and Mycotoxins: potential Species-Specific Effects. Toxins. 2018;10(6):244. doi:10.3390/toxins10060244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wurster S, Tatara Alexander M, Albert Nathaniel D, et al. Tornadic Shear Stress Induces a Transient, Calcineurin-Dependent Hypervirulent Phenotype in Mucorales Molds. mBio. 2020;11(3):e01414–01420. doi:10.1128/mBio.01414-2032605990
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uejio CK, Mak S, Manangan A, Luber G, Bartlett KH. Climatic Influences on Cryptococcus Gattii Populations, Vancouver Island, Canada, 2002–2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2015;21(11):1989. doi:10.3201/eid2111.14116126484590
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoang LMN, Maguire JA, Doyle P, Fyfe M, Roscoe DL. Cryptococcus Neoformans Infections at Vancouver Hospital and Health Sciences Centre (1997 2002): epidemiology, Microbiology and Histopathology. J Med Microbiol. 2004;53(9):935–940. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.05427-015314203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lester SJ, Malik R, Bartlett KH, Duncan CG. Cryptococcosis: update and Emergence of Cryptococcus Gattii. Veterinary Clin Pathol. 2011;40(1):4–17. doi:10.1111/j.1939-165X.2010.00281.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz JH. The Disease Ecology, Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management of Emerging Cryptococcus Gattii Complex Infections. Wilderness Environ Med. 2020;31(1):101–109. doi:10.1016/j.wem.2019.10.00431813737
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidd SE, Chow Y, Mak S, et al. Characterization of Environmental Sources of the Human and Animal Pathogen Cryptococcus Gattii in British Columbia, Canada, and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(5):1433–1443. doi:10.1128/AEM.01330-0617194837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emergence of Cryptococcus Gattii–Pacific Northwest, 2004–2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59(28):865–868.20651641
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosas ÁL, Casadevall A. Melanization Affects Susceptibility of Cryptococcus Neoformans to Heat and Cold. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1997;153(2):265–272. doi:10.1016/S0378-1097(97)00239-59271852
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Casadevall A. Decreased Susceptibility of Melanized Cryptococcus Neoformans to UV Light. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1994;60(10):3864–3866. doi:10.1128/aem.60.10.3864-3866.19947986054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiave LA, Pedroso RS, Candido RC, Roberts DW, Braga GUL. Variability in UVB Tolerances of Melanized and Nonmelanized Cells of Cryptococcus Neoformans and C. laurentii. Photochem Photobiol. 2009;85(1):205–213. doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2008.00418.x18764906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson BR, Chow N, Forsberg K, et al. On the Origins of a Species: what Might Explain the Rise of Candida Auris? J Fungi. 2019;5(3):58. doi:10.3390/jof5030058
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chase AB, Weihe C, Martiny JBH. Adaptive Differentiation and Rapid Evolution of a Soil Bacterium Along a Climate Gradient. Proc National Acad Sci. 2021;118(18):e2101254118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2101254118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fann N, Brennan T, Dolwick P, et al. Ch. 3: air Quality Impacts. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program; 2016:69–98.
   Google Scholar
• Bell JE, Herring SC, Jantarasami L, et al. Ch. 4: impacts of Extreme Events on Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program; 2016:99–128.
   Google Scholar
• Kobziar LN, Thompson GR. Wildfire smoke, a potential infectious agent. Science. 2020;370(6523):1408–1410. doi:10.1126/science.abe811633335049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fear VS, Boyd JH, Rea S, Wood FM, Duke JM, Fear MW. Burn Injury Leads to Increased Long-Term Susceptibility to Respiratory Infection in Both Mouse Models and Population Studies. PLoS One. 2017;12(1):e0169302–e0169302. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.016930228068397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmieri TL. Infection prevention: unique aspects of burn units. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2019;20(2):111–114. doi:10.1089/sur.2018.30130676249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strassle PD, Williams FN, Weber DJ, et al. Risk factors for healthcare-associated infections in adult burn patients. Infect Control Hospital Epidemiol. 2017;38(12):1441–1448. doi:10.1017/ice.2017.220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobouti B, Dahmardehei M, Fallah S, Karrobi M, Ghavami Y, Vaghardoost R. Candidemia in Pediatric Burn Patients: risk Factors and Outcomes in a Retrospective Cohort Study. Curr Med Mycol. 2020;6(3):33. doi:10.18502/cmm.6.3.466333834141
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Capoor MR, Sarabahi S, Tiwari VK, Narayanan RP. Fungal infections in burns: diagnosis and management. Indian J Plastic Surg. 2010;43(S 01):S37–S42. doi:10.4103/0970-0358.70718
   Google Scholar
• Kobziar LN, Pingree MRA, Larson H, Dreaden TJ, Green S, Smith JA. Pyroaerobiology: the aerosolization and transport of viable microbial life by wildland fire. Ecosphere. 2018;9(11):e02507. doi:10.1002/ecs2.2507
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore RA, Bomar C, Kobziar LN, Christner BC. Wildland Fire as an Atmospheric Source of Viable Microbial Aerosols and Biological Ice Nucleating Particles. ISME J. 2021;15(2):461–472. doi:10.1038/s41396-020-00788-833009511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulliken JSRA, Fung M, Babik JM, Doernberg SB Is Exposure to Wildfires Associated with Invasive Fungal Infections? [Abstract]. Paper presented at: American Transplant Congress; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Kobziar LN. Potential Pathogens Identified in Wildland Fire Smoke. Hauser N, ed; 2021
   Google Scholar
• Elbert W, Taylor PE, Andreae MO, Pöschl U. Contribution of Fungi to Primary Biogenic Aerosols in the Atmosphere: wet and Dry Discharged Spores, Carbohydrates, and Inorganic Ions. Atmospheric Chem Phys. 2007;7(17):4569–4588. doi:10.5194/acp-7-4569-2007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherry NL, Padiglione AA, Spelman DW, Cleland H. Microbiology of Wildfire Victims Differs Significantly from Routine Burns Patients: data from an Australian Wildfire Disaster. Burns. 2013;39(2):331–334. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2012.07.01722871555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biesiada G, Czepiel J, Leśniak MR, Garlicki A, Mach T. Lyme disease: review. Arch Med Sci. 2012;8(6):978–982. doi:10.5114/aoms.2012.3094823319969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estrada-Peña A, Ayllón N, de la Fuente J. Impact of climate trends on tick-borne pathogen transmission. Front Physiol. 2012;3:64. doi:10.3389/fphys.2012.0006422470348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogden NH, Lindsay LR. Effects of climate and climate change on vectors and vector-borne diseases: ticks are different. Trends Parasitol. 2016;32(8):646–656. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2016.04.01527260548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogden Nicholas H, Radojevic´ M, Wu X, Duvvuri Venkata R, Leighton Patrick A, Wu J. Estimated Effects of Projected Climate Change on the Basic Reproductive Number of the Lyme Disease Vector Ixodes Scapularis. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122(6):631–638. doi:10.1289/ehp.130779924627295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leighton PA, Koffi JK, Pelcat Y, Lindsay LR, Ogden NH. Predicting the Speed of Tick Invasion: an Empirical Model of Range Expansion for the Lyme Disease Vector Ixodes Scapularis in Canada. J App Ecol. 2012;49(2):457–464. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02112.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon JA, Marrotte RR, Desrosiers N, et al. Climate Change and Habitat Fragmentation Drive the Occurrence of Borrelia Burgdorferi, the Agent of Lyme Disease, at the Northeastern Limit of Its Distribution. Evol Appl. 2014;7(7):750–764. doi:10.1111/eva.1216525469157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy-Dufresne E, Logan T, Simon JA, Chmura GL, Millien V. Poleward Expansion of the White-Footed Mouse (Peromyscus Leucopus) under Climate Change: implications for the Spread of Lyme Disease. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e80724–e80724. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.008072424260464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rounsville TF, Dill GM, Bryant AM, Desjardins CC, Dill JF. Statewide Passive Surveillance of Ixodes Scapularis and Associated Pathogens in Maine. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2021;21(6):406–412. doi:10.1089/vbz.2020.272433661033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boorgula GDY, Peterson AT, Foley DH, Ganta RR, Raghavan RK. Assessing the Current and Future Potential Geographic Distribution of the American Dog Tick, Dermacentor Variabilis (Say)(Acari: Ixodidae) in North America. PLoS One. 2020;15(8):e0237191. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.023719132776959
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe EL, Plourde BT, Lopéz-Perez AM, Foley JE. Response of small mammal and tick communities to a catastrophic wildfire and implications for tick-borne pathogens. J Vector Ecol. 2020;45(2):269–284. doi:10.1111/jvec.1239833207067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pastula DM, Smith DE, Beckham JD, Tyler KL. Four Emerging Arboviral Diseases in North America: Jamestown Canyon, Powassan, Chikungunya, and Zika Virus Diseases. J Neurovirol. 2016;22(3):257–260. doi:10.1007/s13365-016-0428-526903031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronca SE, Ruff JC, Murray KO. A 20-Year Historical Review of West Nile Virus since Its Initial Emergence in North America: has West Nile Virus Become a Neglected Tropical Disease? PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;15(5):e0009190. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000919033956816
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IDMC. Global Report on Internal Displacement. Geneva, Switzerland: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre; 2020.
   Google Scholar
• McMichael C. Climate change-related migration and infectious disease. Virulence. 2015;6(6):548–553. doi:10.1080/21505594.2015.102153926151221
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black R. Environmental Refugees: myth or Reality? United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. New issues in refugee research, working paper 34; 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Brown O. Climate Change and Forced Migration: Observations, Projections and Implications. Human Development Report Office (HDRO), United Nations Development Programme; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Freeman L. Environmental change, migration, and conflict in Africa: a critical examination of the interconnections. J Environ Dev. 2017;26(4):351–374. doi:10.1177/1070496517727325
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King D, Bird D, Haynes K, et al. Voluntary relocation as an adaptation strategy to extreme weather events. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction. 2014;8:83–90. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.02.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schütte S, Gemenne F, Zaman M, Flahault A, Depoux A. Connecting planetary health, climate change, and migration. Lancet Planetary Health. 2018;2(2):e58–e59. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30004-429615235
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raleigh C, Jordan L. Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Migration and Conflict. Washington, DC: Inpaper commissioned by the World Bank Group for the Social Dimensions of Climate Change workshop; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Feng S, Krueger AB, Oppenheimer M. Linkages among Climate Change, Crop Yields and Mexico–Us Cross-Border Migration. Proc National Acad Sci. 2010;107(32):14257. doi:10.1073/pnas.1002632107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffens G. Changing Climate Forces Desperate Guatemalans to Migrate. National Geographic; 2018. Available from: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/drought-climate-change-force-guatemalans-migrate-to-us. Accessed July 30, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• UNHCR. Climate Change and Disaster Displacement. UN Refugee Agency; 2021.
   Google Scholar
• McMichael AJ. Globalization, climate change, and human health. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(14):1335–1343. doi:10.1056/NEJMra110934123550671
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yee EL, Palacio H, Atmar RL, et al. Widespread Outbreak of Norovirus Gastroenteritis among Evacuees of Hurricane Katrina Residing in a Large “Megashelter” in Houston, Texas: lessons Learned for Prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(8):1032–1039. doi:10.1086/51219517366445
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dayrit JF, Sugiharto A, Coates SJ, Lucero-Prisno DE, Davis MDD, Andersen LK. Climate Change, Human Migration, and Skin Disease: is There a Link? Int J Dermatol. 2021. doi:10.1111/ijd.15543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepi M, Focardi S. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Aquaculture and Climate Change: a Challenge for Health in the Mediterranean Area. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(11):5723. doi:10.3390/ijerph1811572334073520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnham JP. Climate change and antibiotic resistance: a deadly combination. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2021;8:2049936121991374. doi:10.1177/204993612199137433643652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacFadden DR, McGough SF, Fisman D, Santillana M, Brownstein JS. Antibiotic resistance increases with local temperature. Nat Clim Chang. 2018;8(6):510–514. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0161-630369964
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenz MG, Wackernagel W. Bacterial gene transfer by natural genetic transformation in the environment. Microbiol Rev. 1994;58(3):563–602. doi:10.1128/mr.58.3.563-602.19947968924
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walsh TR, Weeks J, Livermore DM, Toleman MA. Dissemination of Ndm-1 Positive Bacteria in the New Delhi Environment and Its Implications for Human Health: an Environmental Point Prevalence Study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11(5):355–362. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70059-721478057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah HN, Gharbia SE. The impact of the environment on human infections. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 1999;11(4):248–254. doi:10.1080/08910609908540835
   Google Scholar
• Nsuami MJ, Taylor SN, Smith BS, Martin DH. Increases in gonorrhea among high school students following hurricane Katrina. Sex Transm Infect. 2009;85(3):194. doi:10.1136/sti.2008.03178118955385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekperi LI, Thomas E, LeBlanc TT, et al. The impact of hurricane Sandy on HIV testing rates: an interrupted time series analysis, January 1, 2011‒December 31, 2013. PLoS Curr. 2018;10. doi:10.1371/currents.dis.ea09f9573dc292951b7eb0cf9f395003
   Google Scholar
• Eckelman MJ, Huang K, Lagasse R, Senay E, Dubrow R, Sherman JD. Health care pollution and public health damage in the United States: an update. Health Aff. 2020;39(12):2071–2079. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2020.01247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NOAA, Climate.gov. Available from https://www.climate.gov/media/12884. Accessed December 12, 2021
   Google Scholar