98
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Review of randomized controlled trials of nutritional supplementation in people living with HIV

, &
Pages 21-39 | Published online: 08 Apr 2016

References

  • World Health Organization [webpage on the Internet]. Nutrition Databases. Available from: http://www.who.int/nutrition/databases/en/. Accessed June 7, 2015.
  • Singhal N, Austin J. A clinical review of micronutrients in HIV infection. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic). 2002;1(2):63–75.
  • Baum MK, Etengoff K, Marlink R, et al. Energy intake and HIV disease progression in asymptomatic ARV-naïve HIV+ adults in Botswana. In: Experimental Biology 2008 FASEB Conference; April 5–9, 2008; San Diego, CA.
  • Beisel WR. AIDS. Chapter 32. In: Gershwin ME, German JB, Keen CL, editors. Nutrition and Immunology: Principles and Practices. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 2000:389–403.
  • Lake JE, Currier JS. Metabolic disease in HIV infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13(11):964–975.
  • Pandhi D, Ailawadi P. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Indian J Sex Transm Dis. 2014;35(1):1–11.
  • Teklemariam Z, Mitiku H, Mesfin F. Prevalence of anemia and nutritional status among HIV-positive children receiving antiretroviral therapy in Harar, eastern Ethiopa. HIV AIDS (Auckl). 2015;5(7):191–196.
  • Tomita A, Garrett N, Werner L, et al. Health-related quality of life dynamics of HIV-positive South African women up to ART initiation: evidence from the CAPRISA 002 acute infection cohort study. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(6):1114–1123.
  • Bestawros M, Chidumayo T, Blevins M, et al. Increased systemic inflammation is associated with cardiac and vascular dysfunction over the first 12 weeks of antiretroviral therapy among undernourished, HIV-infected adults in Southern Africa. J AIDS Clin Res. 2015;6(3):431.
  • Campa A, Yang Z, Lai S, et al. HIV-related wasting in HIV-infected drug users in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1179–1185.
  • Baum MK, Rafie C, Lai S, et al. Coronary heart disease risk factors and metabolic syndrome in HIV-positive chronic drug users in Miami. Am J Infect Dis. 2006;2(3):173–179.
  • Gazzola L, Tincati C, Bellistrì GM, Monforte A, Marchetti G. The absence of CD4+ T cell count recovery despite receipt of virologically suppressive highly active antiretroviral therapy: clinical risk, immunological gaps, and therapeutic options. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(3):328–337.
  • Tan R, Westfall AO, Willig JH, et al. Clinical outcome of HIV-infected antiretroviral-naive patients with discordant immunologic and virologic responses to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;47(5):553–558.
  • Lederman HM, Williams PL, Wu JW, et al. Incomplete immune reconstitution after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with severe CD4+ cell depletion. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:1794–1803.
  • Aukrust P, Muller F. Glutathione redox disturbances in human immunodeficiency virus infection: immunologic and therapeutic consequences. Nutrition. 1999;15(2):165–166.
  • Gerschenson M, Brinkman K. Mitochondrial dysfunction in AIDS and its treatment. Mitochondrion. 2004;4(5–6):763–777.
  • Brinkman K, ter Hofstede HJ, Burger DM, Smeitink JAM, Koopmans PP. Adverse effects of reverse transcriptase inhibitors: mitochondrial toxicity as common pathway. AIDS. 1998;12:1735–1744.
  • Maagaard A, Holberg-Petersen M, Kvittingen EA, Sandvik L, Bruun JN. Depletion of mitochondrial DNA copies/cell in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in HIV-1-infected treatment-naïve patients. HIV Med. 2006;7:53–58.
  • Wester CW, Okezie OA, Thomas AM, et al. Higher-than-expected rates of lactic acidosis: preliminary results from a large randomized clinical trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46(3):318–322.
  • Bussmann H, Wester CW, Thomas A, et al. Response to zidovudine/didanosine-containing combination antiretroviral therapy among HIV-1 subtype C-infected adults in Botswana: two-year outcomes from a randomized clinical trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51(1):37–46.
  • Campa A, Hatsu I, Baum MK. Nutrition and HIV. Chapter 24, Table 24-2. In: Eleonor S, Joyce G, editors. Essentials of Nutrition and Diet Therapy. 11th ed. St Louise, MO: Elsevier; 2015:554–556.
  • Drain PK, Kupka R, Mugusi F, Fawzi WW. Micronutrients in HIV-positive persons receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:333–345.
  • Kaiser J, Campa A, Ondercin J, Leoung G, Pless R, Baum MK. Micronutrient supplementation increases CD4 count in HIV-infected Individuals on HAART: a prospective, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;42(5):523–528.
  • Jiamton S, Pepin J, Suttent R, et al. A randomized trial of the impact of multiple micronutrient supplementation on mortality among HIV-infected individuals living in Bangkok. AIDS. 2003;17(17):2461–2469.
  • Fawzi WW, Msamanga GI, Spiegelman D, et al. A randomized trial of multivitamin supplements and HIV disease progression and mortality. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(1):23–32.
  • de la Asunción JG, del Olmo ML, Sastre J, et al. AZT treatment induces molecular and ultrastructural oxidative damage to muscle mitochondria. Prevention by antioxidant vitamins. J Clin Invest. 1998;102(1):4–9.
  • Lopez O, Bonnefont-Rousselot D, Edeas M, Emerit J, Bricaire F. Could antioxidant supplementation reduce antiretroviral therapy-induced chronic stable hyperlactatemia? Biomed Pharmacother. 2003;57(3–4):113–116.
  • Beach RS, Mantero-Atienza E, Shor-Posner G, et al. Specific nutrients abnormalities in asymptomatic HIV infection. AIDS. 1992;6:701–708.
  • Baum MK. Role of micronutrients in HIV-infected intravenous drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;25:S49–S52.
  • Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Lu Y, et al. Micronutients and HIV disease progression. AIDS. 1995;9:1051–1056.
  • Campa A, Shor-Posner G, Indacochea F, et al. Mortality risk in selenium deficient HIV-positive children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1999;20:508–513.
  • Baum MK. Nutritional alterations in high-risk groups in relationship to HIV-1 disease progression. Nutrition. 1996;12(21):124–126.
  • Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Zhang G, et al. HIV-1 infection in women is associated with severe nutritional deficiencies. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1997;16:272–278.
  • Baum MK, Shor Posner G, Campa A. Zinc status in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Nutr. 2000;130:1421S–1423S.
  • Shor-Posner G, Baum MK. Nutritional alterations in HIV-1 seropositive and seronegative drug users. Nutrition. 1996;12:555–556.
  • Tang AM, Graham NM, Kirby AJ, McCall LD, Willet WC, Saah AJ. Dietary micronutrient intake and risk of progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected homosexual men. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;138(11):937–951.
  • Tang AM, Graham NM, Semba RD, Saah AJ. Association between serum vitamin A and E levels and HIV-1 disease progression. AIDS. 1997;11:613–620.
  • Semba RD, Tang AM. Micronutrients and the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Br J Nutr. 1999;81:181–189.
  • Baum MK, Lai S, Sales S, Page JB, Campa A. Randomized controlled clinical trial of zinc supplementation to prevent immunological failure in HIV-positive adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(12):1653–1660.
  • Jones CY, Tang AM, Forrester JE, et al. Micronutrient levels and HIV disease status in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy in the nutrition for healthy living cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43(4):475–482.
  • Hommes MJT, Romi FA, Endert E, Saierweomg JP. Resting energy expenditure and substrate oxidation in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected asymptomatic HIV: HIV affects host metabolism in the early asymptomatic stage. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;54:311–315.
  • Brenchley JM, Price DA, Schacker TW, et al. Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV-infection. Nat Med. 2006;12:1365–1371.
  • Paiardini M, Frank I, Pandrea I, Apetrei C, Silvestri G. Mucosal immune dysfunction in AIDS pathogenesis. AIDS Rev. 2008;20(1):36–46.
  • Mollace V, Salvemini D, Riley DP, et al. The contribution of oxidative stress in apoptosis of human-cultured astroglial cells induced by supernatants of HIV-1-infected macrophages. J Leukoc Biol. 2002;71(1):65–72.
  • Welsh FK, Farmery SM, MacLennan K, et al. Gut barrier function in malnourished patients. Gut. 1998;42:396–401.
  • Reynolds JV, O’Farrelly C, Feighery C, et al. Impaired gut barrier function in malnourished patients. Br J Surg. 1996;83:1288–1291.
  • Al Anazi AR. Gastrointestinal opportunistic infections in human immunodeficiency virus disease. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2009;15(2):95–99.
  • Vesterbacka J, Barqasho B, Häggblom A, Nowak P. Effects of co-trimoxazole on microbial translocation in HIV-1 infected patients initiating antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2015;31(8):830–836.
  • Jiang W, Lederman MM, Hunt P, et al. Plasma levels of bacterial DNA correlate with immune activation and the magnitude of immune restoration in persons with antiretroviral-treated HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2009;199(8):1177–1185.
  • Nanji AA, Khettry U, Sadrzadeh SM. Lactobacillus feeding reduces endotoxemia and severity of experimental alcoholic liver (disease). Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1994;205:243–247.
  • Forsyth CB, Farhadi A, Jakate SM, Tang Y, Shaikh M, Keshavarzian A. Lactobacillus GG treatment ameliorates alcohol-induced intestinal oxidative stress, gut leakiness, and liver injury in a rat model of alcoholic steatohepatitis. Alcohol. 2009;43:163–172.
  • Kirpich IA, Solovieva NV, Leikhter SN, et al. Probiotics restore bowel flora and improve liver enzymes in human alcohol-induced liver injury: a pilot study. Alcohol. 2008;42:675–682.
  • Beach RS, Morgan R, Wilkie F, et al. Plasma vitamin B12 level as a potential cofactor in studies of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 related cognitive changes. Arch Neurol. 1992;49:501–506.
  • Baum MK, Mantero-Atienza E, Shor-Posner G, et al. Association of vitamin B6 status with parameters of immune function in early HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1991;4:1122–1132.
  • Mehta S, Hunter DJ, Mugusi FM, et al. Perinatal outcomes, including mother-to-child transmission of HIV, and child mortality and their association with maternal vitamin D status in Tanzania. J Infect Dis. 2009;200(7):1022–1030.
  • Irlam JH, Visser ME, Rollins N, Siegfried N. Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(4):CD003650.
  • Kawai K, Kupka R, Mugusi F, et al. A randomized trial to determine the optimal dosage of multivitamin supplements to reduce adverse pregnancy outcomes among HIV-infected women in Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(2):391–397.
  • Kupka R, Mugusi F, Aboud S, Hertzmark E, Spiegelman D, Fawzi WW. Effect of selenium supplements on hemoglobin concentration and morbidity among HIV-1-infected Tanzanian women. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(10):1475–1478.
  • Kupka R, Mugusi F, Aboud S, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of selenium supplements among HIV-infected pregnant women in Tanzania: effects on maternal and child outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(6):1802–1808.
  • Villamor E, Mugusi F, Urassa W, et al. A trial of the effect of micronutrient supplementation on treatment outcome, T cell counts, morbidity, and mortality in adults with pulmonary tuberculosis. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(11):1499–1505.
  • Villamor E, Msamanga G, Saathoff E, Fataki M, Manji K, Fawzi WW. Effects of maternal vitamin supplements on malaria in children born to HIV-infected women. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;76(6):1066–1071.
  • Fawzi WW, Msamanga GI, Kupka R, et al. Multivitamin supplementation improves hematologic status in HIV-infected women and their children in Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(5):1335–1343.
  • Smith Fawzi MC, Kaaya SF, Mbwambo J, et al. Multivitamin supplementation in HIV-positive pregnant women: impact on depression and quality of life in a resource-poor setting. HIV Med. 2007;8(4):203–212.
  • McGrath N, Bellinger D, Robins J, Msamanga GI, Tronick E, Fawzi WW. Effect of maternal multivitamin supplementation on the mental and psychomotor development of children who are born to HIV-1-infected mothers in Tanzania. Pediatrics. 2006;117(2):e216–e225.
  • Villamor E, Saathoff E, Manji K, Msamanga G, Hunter DJ, Fawzi WW. Vitamin supplements, socioeconomic status, and morbidity events as predictors of wasting in HIV-infected women from Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(4):857–865.
  • Range N, Changalucha J, Krarup H, Magnussen P, Andersen AB, Friis H. The effect of multi-vitamin/mineral supplementation on mortality during treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: a randomised two-by-two factorial trial in Mwanza, Tanzania. Br J Nutr. 2006;95(4):762–770.
  • Hurwitz BE, Klaus JR, Llabre MM, et al. Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viral load with selenium supplementation: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(2):148–154.
  • McClelland RS, Baeten JM, Overbaugh J, et al. Micronutrient supplementation increases genital tract shedding of HIV-1 in women: results of a randomized trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;37(5):1657–1663.
  • Merchant AT, Msamanga G, Villamor E, et al. Multivitamin supplementation of HIV-positive women during pregnancy reduces hypertension. J Nutr. 2005;135(7):1776–1781.
  • Baylin A, Villamor E, Rifai N, Msamanga G, Fawzi WW. Effect of vitamin supplementation to HIV-infected pregnant women on the micronutrient status of their infants. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59(8):960–968.
  • Villamor E, Saathoff E, Bosch RJ, et al. Vitamin supplementation of HIV-infected women improves postnatal child growth. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81(4):880–888.
  • Fawzi W. Micronutrients and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease progression among adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(suppl 2):S112–S116.
  • Friis H. Micronutrient interventions and HIV infection: a review of the literature. Trop Med Int Health. 2006;11(12):1849–1857.
  • Jacobus DP. Randomization to iron supplementation of patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease – an inadvertent but controlled study with results important for patient care. J Infect Dis. 1996;153:1044–1045.
  • Villamor E, Aboud S, Koulinska IN, et al. Zinc supplementation to HIV-1-infected pregnant women: effects on maternal anthropometry, viral load, and early mother-to-child transmission. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006;60(7):862–869.
  • Cárcamo C, Hooton T, Weiss NS, et al. Randomized controlled trial of zinc supplementation for persistent diarrhea in adults with HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43(2):197–201.
  • Allen LH, Peerson JM, Olney DK. Provision of multiple rather than two or fewer micronutrients more effectively improves growth and other outcomes in micronutrient-deficient children and adults. J Nutr. 2009;139(5):1022–1030.
  • Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics [webpage on the Internet]. Evidence Analysis Manual. Available from: http://www.adaevidencelibrary.com/category.cfm?cid=7&cat=0. Accessed June 20, 2015.
  • Baum MK, Campa A, Lai S, et al. Effect of micronutrient supplementation on disease progression in asymptomatic, antiretroviral-naive, HIV-infected adults in Botswana: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2013;310(20):2154–2163.
  • Villamor E, Msamanga G, Spiegelman D, et al. Effect of multivitamin and vitamin A supplements on weight gain during pregnancy among HIV-1-infected women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(5):1082–1090.
  • Fawzi WW, Msamanga GI, Hunter D, et al. Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to transmission of HIV-1 through breastfeeding and early child mortality. AIDS. 2002;16(14):1935–1944.
  • Sudfeld CR, Aboud S, Kupka R, Mugusi FM, Fawzi WW. Effect of selenium supplementation on HIV-1 RNA detection in breast milk of Tanzanian women. Nutrition. 2014;30(9):1081–1084.
  • Webb AL, Aboud S, Furtado J, et al. Effect of vitamin supplementation on breast milk concentrations of retinol, carotenoids and tocopherols in HIV-infected Tanzanian women. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2009;63(3):332–339.
  • Arsenault JE, Aboud S, Manji KP, Fawzi WW, Villamor E. Vitamin supplementation increases risk of subclinical mastitis in HIV-infected women. J Nutr. 2010;140(10):1788–1792.
  • Villamor E, Koulinska IN, Aboud S, et al. Effect of vitamin supplements on HIV shedding in breastmilk. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92(4):881–886.
  • Austin J, Singhal N, Voigt R, et al. A community randomized controlled clinical trial of mixed carotenoids and micronutrient supplementation of patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006;60(11):1266–1276.
  • Isanaka S, Mugusi F, Hawkins C, et al. Effect of high-dose vs standard-dose multivitamin supplementation at the initiation of HAART on HIV disease progression and mortality in Tanzania: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2012;308(15):1535–1544.
  • Arpadi SM, McMahon D, Abrams EJ, et al. Effect of bimonthly supplementation with oral cholecalciferol on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in HIV-infected children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2009;123(1):e121–e126.
  • Longenecker CT, Hileman CO, Carman TL, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and endothelial function in vitamin D deficient HIV-infected patients: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Antivir Ther. 2012;17(4):613–621.
  • Kakalia S, Sochett EB, Stephens D, Assor E, Read SE, Bitnun A. Vitamin D supplementation and CD4 count in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr. 2011;159(6):951–957.
  • Guaraldi G, Ventura P, Albuzza M, et al. Pathological fractures in AIDS patients with osteopenia and osteoporosis induced by antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:137–138.
  • Huang JS, Rietschel P, Hadigan CM, Rosenthal DI, Greenspoon S. Increased abdominal visceral fat is associated with reduced bone density in HIV-infected men with lipodystrophy. AIDS. 2001;15:975–982.
  • Badiou S, De Boever CM, Terrier N, Baillat V, Cristol JP, Reynes J. Is tenofovir involved in hypophosphatemia and decrease of tubular phosphate reabsorption in HIV-positive adults? J Infect. 2006;52(5):335–338.
  • Gafni RI, Hazra R, Reynolds JC, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and an optimized background regimen of antiretroviral agents as salvage therapy: impact on bone mineral density in HIV-infected children. Pediatrics. 2006;118(3):e711–e718.
  • Carr A, Miller J, Eisman JA, Copper DA. Osteopenia in HIV-infected men: association with asymptomatic lactic acidemia and lower weight pre-antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:703–709.
  • Serrano S, Mariñoso ML, Soriano JC, et al. Bone remodeling in human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected patients: a histomorphometric study. Bone. 1995;16:185–191.
  • Dietary Reference Intake Tables [homepage on the Internet]. The Complete Set. Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences. Available from: www.nap.edu. Accessed March 27, 2015.
  • Kumwenda N, Miotti PG, Taha TE, et al. Antenatal vitamin A supplementation increases birth weight and decreases anemia among infants born to human immunodeficiency virus-infected women in Malawi. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(5):618–624.
  • Mda S, van Raaij JM, de Villiers FP, Kok FJ. Impact of multi-micronutrient supplementation on growth and morbidity of HIV-infected South African children. Nutrients. 2013;5(10):4079–4092.
  • Bobat R, Coovadia H, Stephen C, et al. Safety and efficacy of zinc supplementation for children with HIV-1 infection in South Africa: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;336:1862–1867.
  • Marks DJ, Dheda K, Dawson R, Ainslie G, Miller R F. Adverse sensory polyneuropathy in HIV-TB, 33 events to antituberculosis therapy: influence of HIV and antiretroviral drugs. Int J STD AIDS. 2009;20:339–345.
  • Asdamongkol N, Phanachet P, Sungkanuparph S. Low plasma zinc levels and immunological responses to zinc supplementation in HIV-infected patients with immunological discordance after antiretroviral therapy. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2013;66(6):469–474.
  • Hummelen R, Hemsworth J, Changalucha J, et al. Effect of micronutrient and probiotic fortified yogurt on immune-function of anti-retroviral therapy naive HIV patients. Nutrients. 2011;3(10):897–909.
  • Hummelen R, Changalucha J, Butamanya NL, Cook A, Habbema JD, Reid G. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 and L. reuteri RC-14 to prevent or cure bacterial vaginosis among women with HIV. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2010;111(3):245–248.
  • Van Niekerk E, Kirsten GF, Nel DG, Blaauw R. Probiotics, feeding tolerance, and growth: a comparison between HIV-exposed and unexposed very low birth weight infants. Nutrition. 2014;30(6):645–653.
  • Villar-García J, Hernández JJ, Güerri-Fernández R, et al. Effect of probiotics (Saccharomyces boulardii) on microbial translocation and inflammation in HIV-treated patients: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68(3):256–263.
  • Shey WI, Brocklehurst P, Sterne JA. Vitamin A supplementation for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(3):CD003648.
  • Cunningham-Rundles S, Ahrné S, Johann-Liang R, et al. Effect of probiotic bacteria on microbial host defense, growth, and immune function in human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection. Nutrients. 2011;3(12):1042–1070.
  • Hummelen R, Vos AP, van’t Land B, van Norren K, Reid G. Altered host-microbe interaction in HIV: a target for intervention with pro- and prebiotics. Int Rev Immunol. 2010;29(5):485–513.
  • Estes JD, Harris LD, Klatt NR, et al. Damaged intestinal epithelial integrity linked to microbial translocation in pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus infections. PLoS Pathog. 2010;6(8):e1001052.
  • Ancuta P, Kamat A, Kunstman KJ, et al. Microbial translocation is associated with increased monocyte activation and dementia in AIDS patients. PLoS One. 2008;3(6):e2516.
  • Schneider T, Jahn HU, Schmidt W, Riecken EO, Zeitz M, Ullrich R. Loss of CD4 T lymphocytes in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 is more pronounced in the duodenal mucosa than in the peripheral blood. Berlin Diarrhea/Wasting Syndrome Study Group. Gut. 1995;37:524–529.
  • Mehandru S, Poles MA, Tenner-Racz K, et al. Primary HIV-1 infection is associated with preferential depletion of CD4+ T lymphocytes from effector sites in the gastrointestinal tract. J Exp Med. 2004;200:761–770.
  • Nazli A, Chan O, Dobson-Belaire WN, et al. Exposure to HIV-1 directly impairs mucosal epithelial barrier integrity allowing microbial translocation. PLoS Pathog. 2010;6:e1000852.
  • Brenchley JM, Paiardini M, Knox KS, et al. Differential Th17 CD4 T-cell depletion in pathogenic and nonpathogenic lentiviral infections. Blood. 2008;112:2826–2835.
  • Gori A, Tincati C, Rizzardini G, et al. Early impairment of gut function and gut flora supporting a role for alteration of gastrointestinal mucosa in human immunodeficiency virus pathogenesis. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(2):757–758.
  • Ipp H, Zemlin AE, Erasmus RT, Glashoff RH. Role of inflammation in HIV-1 disease progression and prognosis. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2014;51(2):98–111.
  • Wang HJ, Gao B, Zakhari S, Nagy LE. Inflammation in alcoholic liver disease. Annu Rev Nutr. 2012;32:343–368.
  • Wang Y, Kirpich I, Liu Y, et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG treatment potentiates intestinal hypoxia-inducible factor, promotes intestinal integrity and ameliorates alcohol-induced liver injury. Am J Pathol. 2011;179:2866–2875.
  • Segers ME, Lebeer S. Towards a better understanding of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG–host interactions. Microb Cell Fact. 2014;13(suppl 1):S7.
  • Anukam KC, Osazuwa EO, Osadolor HB, Bruce AW, Reid G. Yogurt containing probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 and L. reuteri RC-14 helps resolve moderate diarrhea and increases CD4 count in HIV/AIDS patients. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;42(3):239–243.
  • Kerac M, Bunn J, Seal A, et al. Probiotics and prebiotics for severe acute malnutrition (PRONUT study): a double-blind efficacy randomised controlled trial in Malawi. Lancet. 2009;374(9684):136–144.
  • Yang OO, Kelesidis T, Cordova R, et al. Immunomodulation of antiretroviral drug-suppressed chronic HIV-1 infection in an oral probiotic double-blind placebo-controlled trial. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2014;30(10):988–995.
  • Miettinen M, Vuopio-Varkila J, Varkila K. Production of human tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, and interleukin-10 is induced by lactic acid bacteria. Infect Immun. 1996;64(12):5403–5405.
  • Guarino A, Canani RB, Spagnuolo MI, Albano F, Di Benedetto L. Oral bacterial therapy reduces the duration of symptoms and of viral excretion in children with mild diarrhea. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1997;25:516–519.
  • Smith CJ, Ryom L, Weber R, et al. Trends in underlying causes of death in people with HIV from 1999 to 2011 (D:A:D): a multicohort collaboration. Lancet. 2014;384(9939):241–248.
  • Fields-Gardner C, Campa A; American Dietetic Association. Position of the American Dietetic Association: nutrition intervention and human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(7):1105–1119.