1,146
Views
29
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Electroconvulsive Therapy for Patients with Catatonia: Current Perspectives

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 2191-2208 | Published online: 25 Sep 2020

References

  • Anderson D, Wollmann R, Dinwiddie SH. Neuropathological evaluation of an 84-year-old man after 422 ECT treatments. J ECT. 2014;30(3):248–250. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000006224755716
  • Taylor MA, Fink M. Catatonia in psychiatric classification: a home of its own. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(7):1233–1241. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.7.123312832234
  • Fink M, Shorter E, Taylor MA. Catatonia is not schizophrenia: kraepelin’s error and the need to recognize catatonia as an independent syndrome in medical nomenclature. Schizophr Bull. 2010;36(2):314–320. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp05919586994
  • Gazdag G, Bitter I, Ungvari GS, Baran B, Fink M. Laszlo Meduna’s pilot studies with camphor inductions of seizures: the first 11 patients. J ECT. 2009;25(1):3–11. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31819359fc19209069
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub; 2013.
  • McCall WV, Andrade C, Sienaert P. Searching for the mechanism(s) of ECT’s therapeutic effect. J ECT. 2014;30(2):87–89. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000012124755719
  • Sienaert P, Rooseleer J, De Fruyt J. Measuring catatonia: a systematic review of rating scales. J Affect Disord. 2011;135(1–3):1–9. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.02.01221420736
  • Braunig P, Kruger S, Shugar G, Hoffler J, Borner I. The catatonia rating scale: development, reliability, and use. Compr Psychiatry. 2000;41(2):147–158. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(00)90148-210741894
  • Bush G, Fink M, Petrides G, Dowling F, Francis A. Catatonia I. Rating scale and standardized examination. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1996;93(2):129–136. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb09814.x8686483
  • Carroll BT, Kirkhart R, Ahuja N, et al. Katatonia: a new conceptual understanding of catatonia and a new rating scale. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2008;5(12):42–50.
  • Lund CE, Mortimer AM, Rogers D, McKenna PJ. Motor, volitional and behavioural disorders in schizophrenia. 1: assessment using the modified Rogers scale. Br J Psychiatry. 1991;158(333–326):323–327. doi:10.1192/bjp.158.3.3232036529
  • Northoff G, Koch A, Wenke J, et al. Catatonia as a psychomotor syndrome: a rating scale and extrapyramidal motor symptoms. Mov Disord. 1999;14(3):404–416. doi:10.1002/1531-8257(199905)14:3<404::AID-MDS1004>3.0.CO;2-510348462
  • Rogers D. The motor disorders of severe psychiatric illness: a conflict of paradigms. Br J Psychiatry. 1985;147:221–232. doi:10.1192/bjp.147.3.2212866007
  • Starkstein SE, Petracca G, Teson A, et al. Catatonia in depression: prevalence, clinical correlates, and validation of a scale. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1996;60(3):326–332. doi:10.1136/jnnp.60.3.3268609512
  • Shorter E, Fink M. The Madness of Fear: A History of Catatonia. Oxford University Press; 2018.
  • Dhossche DM, Stoppelbein L, Rout UK. Etiopathogenesis of catatonia: generalizations and working hypotheses. J ECT. 2010;26(4):253–258. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181fbf96d21076339
  • Daniels J. Catatonia: clinical aspects and neurobiological correlates. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;21(4):371–380. doi:10.1176/jnp.2009.21.4.37119996245
  • Lee JW. Neuroleptic-induced catatonia: clinical presentation, response to benzodiazepines, and relationship to neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30(1):3–10. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181c9bfe620075641
  • Northoff G, Steinke R, Czcervenka C, et al. Decreased density of GABA-A receptors in the left sensorimotor cortex in akinetic catatonia: investigation of in vivo benzodiazepine receptor binding. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;67(4):445–450. doi:10.1136/jnnp.67.4.44510486389
  • Northoff G. What catatonia can tell us about “top-down modulation”: a neuropsychiatric hypothesis. Behav Brain Sci. 2002;25(5):555–577. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0200010912958742
  • Richter A, Grimm S, Northoff G. Lorazepam modulates orbitofrontal signal changes during emotional processing in catatonia. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2010;25(1):55–62. doi:10.1002/hup.108420041475
  • Dhossche DM. Vagal intimations for catatonia and electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT. 2014;30(2):111–115. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000013424800686
  • Porges SW. The polyvagal perspective. Biol Psychol. 2007;74(2):116–143. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.00917049418
  • Peralta V, Goldberg X, Ribeiro M, Sanchez-Torres AM, Fananas L, Cuesta MJ. Familiality of psychotic disorders: a polynosologic study in multiplex families. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42(4):975–983. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv19226707865
  • Stober G, Saar K, Ruschendorf F, et al. Splitting schizophrenia: periodic catatonia-susceptibility locus on chromosome 15q15. Am J Hum Genet. 2000;67(5):1201–1207. doi:10.1086/32118311001582
  • Caroff S, Mann S, Francis A, Fricchione G. Catatonia: From Psychopathology to Neurobiology. APPI; 2004.
  • Northoff G, Nagel D, Danos P, Leschinger A, Lerche J, Bogerts B. Impairment in visual-spatial function in catatonia: a neuropsychological investigation. Schizophr Res. 1999;37(2):133–147. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(98)00150-910374649
  • Jiang J, Wang J, Li C. Potential mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of electroconvulsive therapy. Neurosci Bull. 2017;33(3):339–347. doi:10.1007/s12264-016-0094-x28032314
  • Gbyl K, Videbech P. Electroconvulsive therapy increases brain volume in major depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2018;138(3):180–195. doi:10.1111/acps.1288429707778
  • Fink M, Taylor M. Catatonia: A Clinician’s Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. Cambridge University Press; 2006.
  • van der Heijden FM, Tuinier S, Arts NJ, Hoogendoorn ML, Kahn RS, Verhoeven WM. Catatonia: disappeared or under-diagnosed? Psychopathology. 2005;38(1):3–8. doi:10.1159/00008396415714008
  • Llesuy JR, Medina M, Jacobson KC, Cooper JJ. Catatonia under-diagnosis in the general hospital. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2018;30(2):145–151. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.1706012329325478
  • Llesuy JR, Coffey MJ, Jacobson KC, Cooper JJ. Suspected delirium predicts the thoroughness of catatonia evaluation. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2017;29(2):148–154. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.1509023027899050
  • Smith JH, Smith VD, Philbrick KL, Kumar N. Catatonic disorder due to a general medical or psychiatric condition. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2012;24(2):198–207. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.1106012022772668
  • Saddawi-Konefka D, Berg SM, Nejad SH, Bittner EA. Catatonia in the ICU: an important and underdiagnosed cause of altered mental status. A case series and review of the literature. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(3):234–241. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000053
  • Oldham MA, Lee HB. Catatonia vis-a-vis delirium: the significance of recognizing catatonia in altered mental status. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2015;37(6):554–559. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.06.01126162545
  • Billstedt E, Gillberg IC, Gillberg C. Autism after adolescence: population-based 13- to 22-year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood. J Autism Dev Disord. 2005;35(3):351–360. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3302-516119476
  • Braunig P, Kruger S, Shugar G. Prevalence and clinical significance of catatonic symptoms in mania. Compr Psychiatry. 1998;39(1):35–46. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(98)90030-X9472454
  • Ghaziuddin N, Dhossche D, Marcotte K. Retrospective chart review of catatonia in child and adolescent psychiatric patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2012;125(1):33–38. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01778.x22040029
  • Grover S, Ghosh A, Ghormode D. Do patients of delirium have catatonic features? an exploratory study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2014;68(8):644–651. doi:10.1111/pcn.1216824521083
  • Grover S, Chakrabarti S, Ghormode D, Agarwal M, Sharma A, Avasthi A. Catatonia in inpatients with psychiatric disorders: a comparison of schizophrenia and mood disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2015;229(3):919–925. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.07.02026260564
  • Hutton J, Goode S, Murphy M, Le Couteur A, Rutter M. New-onset psychiatric disorders in individuals with autism. Autism. 2008;12(4):373–390. doi:10.1177/136236130809165018579645
  • Kruger S, Cooke RG, Spegg CC, Braunig P. Relevance of the catatonic syndrome to the mixed manic episode. J Affect Disord. 2003;74(3):279–285. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00088-512738047
  • Nahar A, Kondapuram N, Desai G, Chandra PS. Catatonia among women with postpartum psychosis in a mother-baby inpatient psychiatry unit. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2017;45:40–43. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2016.12.01028274337
  • Ohta M, Kano Y, Nagai Y. Catatonia in individuals with autism spectrum disorders in adolescence and early adulthood: a long-term prospective study. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2006;72:41–54.16697290
  • Peralta V, Cuesta MJ. Motor features in psychotic disorders. II. Development of diagnostic criteria for catatonia. Schizophr Res. 2001;47(2–3):117–126. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(00)00035-911278128
  • Peralta V, Campos MS, de Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ. DSM-IV catatonia signs and criteria in first-episode, drug-naive, psychotic patients: psychometric validity and response to antipsychotic medication. Schizophr Res. 2010;118(1–3):168–175. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2009.12.02320071147
  • Peralta V, Campos MS, De Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ. Motor behavior abnormalities in drug-naive patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Mov Disord. 2010;25(8):1068–1076. doi:10.1002/mds.2305020222137
  • Solmi M, Pigato GG, Roiter B, et al. Prevalence of catatonia and its moderators in clinical samples: results from a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Schizophr Bull. 2018;44(5):1133–1150. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx15729140521
  • Stober G. Genetic predisposition and environmental causes in periodic and systematic catatonia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;251(Suppl 1):I21–24. doi:10.1007/PL0001419611776267
  • Stompe T, Ortwein-Swoboda G, Ritter K, Marquart B, Schanda H. The impact of diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of schizophrenic subtypes. Compr Psychiatry. 2005;46(6):433–439. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.03.00316275210
  • Ungvari GS, Leung SK, Ng FS, Cheung HK, Leung T. Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features (‘catatonic schizophrenia’): demographic and clinical correlates in the chronic phase. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2005;29(1):27–38. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2004.08.00715610942
  • Wilson JE, Carlson R, Duggan MC, et al. Delirium and catatonia in critically ill patients: the delirium and catatonia prospective cohort investigation. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(11):1837–1844. doi:10.1097/CCM.000000000000264228841632
  • Wing L, Shah A. Catatonia in autistic spectrum disorders. Br J Psychiatry. 2000;176:357–362. doi:10.1192/bjp.176.4.35710827884
  • Sienaert P, Dhossche DM, Vancampfort D, De Hert M, Gazdag G. A clinical review of the treatment of catatonia. Front Psychiatry. 2015;37:181. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00181
  • Zisselman MH, Jaffe RL. ECT in the treatment of a patient with catatonia: consent and complications. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(2):127–132. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.0905070320123920
  • Rasmussen SA, Mazurek MF, Rosebush PI. Catatonia: our current understanding of its diagnosis, treatment and pathophysiology. World J Psychiatry. 2016;6(4):391–398. doi:10.5498/wjp.v6.i4.39128078203
  • Clinebell K, Azzam PN, Gopalan P, Haskett R. Guidelines for preventing common medical complications of catatonia: case report and literature review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014;75(6):644–651. doi:10.4088/JCP.13r0887025004188
  • Unal A, Altindag A, Demir B, Aksoy I. The use of lorazepam and electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of catatonia: treatment characteristics and outcomes in 60 patients. J ECT. 2017;33(4):290–293. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000043328640169
  • Fink M, Taylor MA. The catatonia syndrome: forgotten but not gone. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(11):1173–1177. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.14119884605
  • Kang M, Galuska MA, Ghassemzadeh S. Benzodiazepine toxicity In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing LLC; 2020 Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482238/.
  • Thomas P, Cottencin O, Rascle C, Vaiva G, Goudemand M, Bieder J. Catatonia in French psychiatry: implications of the zolpidem challenge test. Psychiatr Ann. 2007;37:45–54. doi:10.3928/00485713-20070101-02
  • Beach SR, Gomez-Bernal F, Huffman JC, Fricchione GL. Alternative treatment strategies for catatonia: a systematic review. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2017;48:1–19. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2017.06.01128917389
  • Carroll BT, Goforth HW, Thomas C, et al. Review of adjunctive glutamate antagonist therapy in the treatment of catatonic syndromes. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007;19(4):406–412. doi:10.1176/jnp.2007.19.4.40618070843
  • Carpenter SS, Hatchett AD, Fuller MA. Catatonic schizophrenia and the use of memantine. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40(2):344–346. doi:10.1345/aph.1G29716380435
  • Kruger S, Braunig P. Intravenous valproic acid in the treatment of severe catatonia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;13(2):303–304. doi:10.1176/jnp.13.2.30311449040
  • Kritzinger PR, Jordaan GP. Catatonia: an open prospective series with carbamazepine. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2001;4(3):251–257. doi:10.1017/S146114570100248611602030
  • McDaniel WW, Spiegel DR, Sahota AK. Topiramate effect in catatonia: a case series. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;18(2):234–238. doi:10.1176/jnp.2006.18.2.23416720802
  • Walther S, Stegmayer K, Wilson JE, Heckers S. Structure and neural mechanisms of catatonia. Lancet Psychiatry. 2019;6(7):610–619. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30474-731196794
  • Raveendranathan D, Narayanaswamy JC, Reddi SV. Response rate of catatonia to electroconvulsive therapy and its clinical correlates. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2012;262(5):425–430. doi:10.1007/s00406-011-0285-422207031
  • Hatta K, Miyakawa K, Ota T, Usui C, Nakamura H, Arai H. Maximal response to electroconvulsive therapy for the treatment of catatonic symptoms. J ECT. 2007;23(4):233–235. doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e318158794918090694
  • Perugi G, Medda P, Toni C, Mariani MG, Socci C, Mauri M. The role of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in bipolar disorder: effectiveness in 522 patients with bipolar depression, mixed-state, mania and catatonic features. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2017;15(3):359–371. doi:10.2174/1570159X1466616101723364228503107
  • Girish K, Gill NS. Electroconvulsive therapy in Lorazepam non-responsive catatonia. Indian J Psychiatry. 2003;45(1):21–25.21206808
  • Consoli A, Benmiloud M, Wachtel L, Dhossche D, Cohen D, Bonnot O. Electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents with the catatonia syndrome: efficacy and ethics. J ECT. 2010;26(4):259–265. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181fb392421099377
  • van Waarde JA, Tuerlings JH, Verwey B, van der Mast RC. Electroconvulsive therapy for catatonia: treatment characteristics and outcomes in 27 patients. J ECT. 2010;26(4):248–252. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181c18a1319935090
  • Morrison JR. Catatonia: prediction of outcome. Compr Psychiatry. 1974;15(4):317–324. doi:10.1016/0010-440X(74)90053-44412345
  • Milev RV, Giacobbe P, Kennedy SH, et al. Canadian network for mood and anxiety treatments (CANMAT) 2016 clinical guidelines for the management of adults with major depressive disorder: section 4. neurostimulation treatments. Can J Psychiatry. 2016;61(9):561–575. doi:10.1177/070674371666003327486154
  • Leroy A, Naudet F, Vaiva G, Francis A, Thomas P, Amad A. Is electroconvulsive therapy an evidence-based treatment for catatonia? a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2018;268(7):675–687. doi:10.1007/s00406-017-0819-528639007
  • Smith GC, Pell JP. Parachute use to prevent death and major trauma related to gravitational challenge: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2003;327(7429):1459–1461. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7429.145914684649
  • Boeke A, Pullen B, Coppes L, Medina M, Cooper JJ. Catatonia associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): a report of two cases and a review of the literature. Psychosomatics. 2018;59(6):523–530. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2018.06.00730270156
  • Omi T, Matsunaga H, Kanai K, Shiraishi N, Miyazato Y, Sumikura H. Treatment of possible PERM underlying malignant catatonia and accompanying psychotic symptoms with modified electroconvulsive therapy: a case report. J ECT. 2019;35(1):3–4. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000053629877963
  • Pontikes TK, Dinwiddie SH. Electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with multiple sclerosis and recurrent catatonia. J ECT. 2010;26(4):270–271. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181d039e621155152
  • Romanowicz M, Sola CL. Electroconvulsive therapy-responsive catatonia in a medically complicated patient. J ECT. 2010;26(3):234–237. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181c18a8c19935089
  • Coffey MJ, Cooper JJ. Therapeutic uses of seizures in neuropsychiatry. Focus (Am Psychiatr Publ). 2019;17(1):13–17. doi:10.1176/appi.focus.2018002331975954
  • Ungvari GS, Chiu HF, Chow LY, Lau BS, Tang WK. Lorazepam for chronic catatonia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1999;142(4):393–398. doi:10.1007/s00213005090410229064
  • Wachtel LE, Hermida A, Dhossche DM. Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in autistic catatonia: a case series review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2010;34(4):581–587. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.01220298732
  • Wachtel LE, Dhossche DM, Kellner CH. When is electroconvulsive therapy appropriate for children and adolescents? Med Hypotheses. 2011;76(3):395–399. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2010.11.00121129852
  • Wachtel LE. Treatment of catatonia in autism spectrum disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2019;139(1):46–55. doi:10.1111/acps.1298030506668
  • Withane N, Dhossche DM. Electroconvulsive treatment for catatonia in autism spectrum disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2019;28(1):101–110. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2018.07.00630389070
  • Coffey MJ, Cooper JJ. Electroconvulsive therapy in anti-n-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a case report and review of the literature. J ECT. 2016;32(4):225–229. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000033427295461
  • Warren N, Grote V, O’Gorman C, Siskind D. Electroconvulsive therapy for anti-n-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis: a systematic review of cases. Brain Stimul. 2019;12(2):329–334. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2018.11.01630528383
  • Dhossche DM, Withane N. Electroconvulsive therapy for catatonia in children and adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2019;28(1):111–120. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2018.07.00730389071
  • Makhinson M, Furst BA, Shuff MK, Kwon GE. Successful treatment of co-occurring catatonia and obsessive-compulsive disorder with concurrent electroconvulsive therapy and benzodiazepine administration. J ECT. 2012;28(3):35–36. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318254c2ea
  • D’Urso G, Mantovani A, Barbarulo AM, Labruna L, Muscettola G. Brain-behavior relationship in a case of successful ECT for drug refractory catatonic OCD. J ECT. 2012;28(3):190–193. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318254264922569374
  • Duarte-Batista P, Coelho M, Quintas S, et al. Anterior limb of internal capsule and bed nucleus of stria terminalis stimulation for Gilles de la Tourette syndrome with obsessive-compulsive disorder in adolescence: a case of success. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2020;1–9.
  • Luchini F, Medda P, Mariani MG, Mauri M, Toni C, Perugi G. Electroconvulsive therapy in catatonic patients: efficacy and predictors of response. World J Psychiatry. 2015;5(2):182–192. doi:10.5498/wjp.v5.i2.18226110120
  • Swartz CM, Acosta D, Bashir A. Diminished ECT response in catatonia due to chronic neurologic condition. J ECT. 2003;19(2):110–114. doi:10.1097/00124509-200306000-0001012792461
  • Medda P, Toni C, Luchini F, Giorgi Mariani M, Mauri M, Perugi G. Catatonia in 26 patients with bipolar disorder: clinical features and response to electroconvulsive therapy. Bipolar Disord. 2015;17(8):892–901. doi:10.1111/bdi.1234826643014
  • Quinn DK, Abbott CC. Catatonia after cerebral hypoxia: do the usual treatments apply? Psychosomatics. 2014;55(6):525–535. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2014.03.01025262046
  • Tharyan P, Adams CE. Electroconvulsive therapy for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;2.
  • Sinclair DJ, Zhao S, Qi F, Nyakyoma K, Kwong JS, Adams CE. Electroconvulsive therapy for treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;3.
  • Fink M, Kellner CH, McCall WV. Optimizing ECT technique in treating catatonia. J ECT. 2016;32(3):149–150. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000034527428478
  • Kellner CH, Popeo DM, Aloysi AS. Electroconvulsive therapy for catatonia. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:1127–1128. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10020261
  • Cristancho P, Jewkes D, Mon T, Conway C. Successful use of right unilateral ECT for catatonia: a case series. J ECT. 2014;30(1):69–72. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31829a01d323859978
  • Baker AS, Suh E, Prudic J. Malignant catatonia: role of right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT. 2008;24(2):168–170. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318151414418580565
  • Rhoads JC, Votolato NA, Young JL, Gilchrist RH. The successful use of right unilateral ultra-brief pulse electroconvulsive therapy in an adolescent with catatonia. Brain Stimul. 2010;3(1):51–53. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2009.07.00320633430
  • Kugler JL, Hauptman AJ, Collier SJ, et al. Treatment of catatonia with ultrabrief right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy: a case series. J ECT. 2015;31(3):192–196. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000018525243751
  • Little JD, Munday J, Atkins M. Right unilateral ECT at 6x seizure threshold: is it effective in the psychoses? J ECT. 2003;19(3):158–163. doi:10.1097/00124509-200309000-0000812972986
  • Mon T, L’Ecuyer S, Farber NB, et al. The use of electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus and catatonia. Lupus. 2012;21(14):1575–1581. doi:10.1177/096120331246480323161578
  • Cupina D, Patil S, Loo C. Chronic catatonic schizophrenia treated successfully with right unilateral ultrabrief pulse electroconvulsive therapy: case report. J ECT. 2013;29(2):134–136. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31827659e423303422
  • Pinna M, Manchia M, Pillai G, Salis P, Minnai GP. Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in the first trimester of pregnancy: a case of severe manic catatonia. Bipolar Disord. 2015;17(5):567–571. doi:10.1111/bdi.1229725854818
  • Suzuki K, Shindo T, Katsura M, et al. Resolution of catatonia by successful seizure induction via electroconvulsive therapy with electrodes applied bilaterally to the parietotemporal region. J ECT. 2007;23(2):103–105. doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e31803025f617548981
  • Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Nobler MS, et al. Effects of pulse width and electrode placement on the efficacy and cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. Brain Stimul. 2008;1(2):71–83. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2008.03.00119756236
  • Sajith SG, Liew SF, Tor PC. Response to electroconvulsive therapy in patients with autism spectrum disorder and intractable challenging behaviors associated with symptoms of catatonia. J ECT. 2017;33(1):63–67. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000033827428481
  • Torr J, D’Abrera JC. Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy for depression with catatonia in a young woman with Down syndrome. J ECT. 2014;30(4):332–336. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000011624755717
  • DeJong H, Bunton P, Hare DJ. A systematic review of interventions used to treat catatonic symptoms in people with autistic spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(9):2127–2136. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2085-y24643578
  • Santos Pina L, Bouckaert F, Obbels J, et al. Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in severe bipolar disorder: a retrospective chart review. J ECT. 2016;32(1):23–28. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000025326172058
  • Fox HA. Continuation and maintenance electroconvulsive therapy–a conceptual framework? J ECT. 2015;31(2):27–28. doi:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000224
  • Rabheru K. Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy (M-ECT) after acute response: examining the evidence for who, what, when, and how? J ECT. 2012;28(1):39–47. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318245575822330700
  • Shelef A, Mazeh D, Berger U, Baruch Y, Barak Y. Acute electroconvulsive therapy followed by maintenance electroconvulsive therapy decreases hospital re-admission rates of older patients with severe mental illness. J ECT. 2015;31(2):125–128. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000019725373561
  • Minelli A, Abate M, Zampieri E, et al. Seizure adequacy markers and the prediction of electroconvulsive therapy response. J ECT. 2016;32(2):88–92. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000027426397151
  • Krystal AD, Watts BV, Weiner RD, Moore S, Steffens DC, Lindahl V. The use of flumazenil in the anxious and benzodiazepine-dependent ECT patient. J ECT. 1998;14(1):5–14. doi:10.1097/00124509-199803000-000029661088
  • Bozymski KM, Potter TG, Venkatachalam V, Pandurangi AK, Crouse EL. Caffeine sodium benzoate for electroconvulsive therapy augmentation. J ECT. 2018;34(4):233–239. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000050329768288
  • Hoshi H, Kadoi Y, Kamiyama J, et al. Use of rocuronium-sugammadex, an alternative to succinylcholine, as a muscle relaxant during electroconvulsive therapy. J Anesth. 2011;25(2):286–290. doi:10.1007/s00540-011-1095-621293886
  • Merk W, Kucia K. Combined use of ECT and psychotropic drugs. Psychiatr Pol. 2015;49(6):1241–1253. doi:10.12740/PP/3746226909399
  • American Psychiatric Association. The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy: Recommendations for Treatment, Training, and Privileging (a Task Force Report of the American Psychiatric Association). American Psychiatric Publication; 2008.
  • Stromgren LS, Dahl J, Fjeldborg N, Thomsen A. Factors influencing seizure duration and number of seizures applied in unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Anaesthetics and benzodiazepines. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1980;62(2):158–165. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1980.tb00603.x6110313
  • Pettinati HM, Stephens SM, Willis KM, Robin SE. Evidence for less improvement in depression in patients taking benzodiazepines during unilateral ECT. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147(8):1029–1035.2375437
  • Petrides G, Divadeenam KM, Bush G, Francis A. Synergism of lorazepam and electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of catatonia. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;42(5):375–381. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00378-29276078
  • Food and Drug Administration. Neurological devices; reclassification of electroconvulsive therapy devices; effective date of requirement for premarket approval for electroconvulsive therapy devices for certain specified intended uses. Fed Regist. 2018;83(246):66103–66124.30596410
  • Tess AV, Smetana GW. Medical evaluation of patients undergoing electroconvulsive therapy. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(14):1437–1444. doi:10.1056/NEJMra070775519339723
  • Torring N, Sanghani SN, Petrides G, Kellner CH, Ostergaard SD. The mortality rate of electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review and pooled analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2017;135(5):388–397. doi:10.1111/acps.1272128332236
  • Ducharme S, Murray ED, Seiner SJ, Tayeb H, Legesse B, Price BH. Retrospective analysis of the short-term safety of ECT in patients with neurological comorbidities: a guide for pre-ECT neurological evaluations. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2015;27(4):311–321. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.1408019525658682
  • Sundsted KK, Burton MC, Shah R, Lapid MI. Preanesthesia medical evaluation for electroconvulsive therapy: a review of the literature. J ECT. 2014;30(1):35–42. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3182a3546f24091900
  • Ward HB, Fromson JA, Cooper JJ, De Oliveira G, Almeida M. Recommendations for the use of ECT in pregnancy: literature review and proposed clinical protocol. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2018;21(6):715–722. doi:10.1007/s00737-018-0851-029796968
  • Sinha P, Goyal P, Andrade C. A meta-review of the safety of electroconvulsive therapy in pregnancy. J ECT. 2017;33(2):81–88. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000036228009621
  • Coshal S, Jones K, Coverdale J, Livingston R. An overview of reviews on the safety of electroconvulsive therapy administered during pregnancy. J Psychiatr Pract. 2019;25(1):2–6. doi:10.1097/PRA.000000000000035930633726
  • Kellner CH, Husain MM, Knapp RG, et al. Right unilateral ultrabrief pulse ECT in geriatric depression: Phase 1 of the PRIDE study. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(11):1101–1109. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.1508110127418379
  • Puffer CC, Wall CA, Huxsahl JE, Frye MA. A 20 year practice review of electroconvulsive therapy for adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26(7):632–636. doi:10.1089/cap.2015.013926784386
  • Devanand DP, Dwork AJ, Hutchinson ER, Bolwig TG, Sackeim HA. Does ECT alter brain structure? Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151(7):957–970.8010381
  • Elias A, Chathanchirayil SJ, Bhat R, Prudic J. Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy up to 12 years. J Affect Disord. 2014;156:228–231. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.00524355648
  • Devanand DP, Verma AK, Tirumalasetti F, Sackeim HA. Absence of cognitive impairment after more than 100 lifetime ECT treatments. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148(7):929–932.2053635
  • Acharya D, Harper DG, Achtyes ED, et al. Safety and utility of acute electroconvulsive therapy for agitation and aggression in dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;30(3):265–273. doi:10.1002/gps.413724838521
  • Hermida AP, Tang YL, Glass O, Janjua AU, McDonald WM. Efficacy and safety of ECT for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD): a retrospective chart review. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2020;28(2):157–163. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2019.09.00831668364
  • Wachtel LE, Dhossche DM, Reti IM, Hughes-Wheatland R. Stability of intellectual functioning during maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. Pediatr Neurol. 2012;47(3):219–221. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2012.05.01222883291
  • Osler M, Rozing MP, Christensen GT, Andersen PK, Jorgensen MB. Electroconvulsive therapy and risk of dementia in patients with affective disorders: a cohort study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5(4):348–356. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30056-729523431
  • Chu CW, Chien WC, Chung CH, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy and risk of dementia: a nationwide cohort study in Taiwan. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:397. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.0039730245639
  • Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Fuller R, Keilp J, Lavori PW, Olfson M. The cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy in community settings. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32(1):244–254. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.130118016936712
  • Vann Jones S, McCollum R. Subjective memory complaints after electroconvulsive therapy: systematic review. BJ Psych Bull. 2019;43(2):73–80. doi:10.1192/bjb.2018.45
  • Medina M, Cooper JJ. Utility of the clock drawing test in the assessment of catatonia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2019;31(1):89–91. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.1809021030404532
  • Moussa T, Afzal K, Cooper J, Rosenberger R, Gerstle K, Wagner-Weiner L. Pediatric anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis with catatonia: treatment with electroconvulsive therapy. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2019;17(1):8. doi:10.1186/s12969-019-0310-030777097
  • Kalisova L, Kubinova M, Michalec J, Albrecht J, Madlova K, Raboch J. Cognitive functioning in patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2018;14:3025–3031. doi:10.2147/NDT.S18242330510424
  • Vasavada MM, Leaver AM, Njau S, et al. Short- and long-term cognitive outcomes in patients with major depression treated with electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT. 2017;33(4):278–285. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000042628617690
  • Tsujii T, Uchida T, Suzuki T, Mimura M, Hirano J, Uchida H. Factors associated with delirium following electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review. J ECT. 2019;35(4):279–287. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000060631764452
  • Malur C, Francis A. Emergence of catatonia during ECT. J ECT. 2001;17(3):201–204. doi:10.1097/00124509-200109000-0001111528313
  • Payne NA, Prudic J. Electroconvulsive therapy: part II: a biopsychosocial perspective. J Psychiatr Pract. 2009;15(5):369–390. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000361278.73092.8519820554
  • Bostwick JM, Chozinski JP. Temporal competency in catatonia. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2002;30(3):371–376.12380416
  • Methfessel I, Sartorius A, Zilles D. Electroconvulsive therapy against the patients’ will: a case series. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2018;19(3):236–242. doi:10.1080/15622975.2017.129329628299981
  • Livingston R, Wu C, Mu K, Coffey MJ. Regulation of electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review of US state laws. J ECT. 2018;34(1):60–68. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000046028991068
  • Cooper JJ, Brakel SJ, Dinwiddie SH. Limiting legal intrusions in ECT practice, a commentary on “regulation of electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review of US state laws”. J ECT. 2018;34(1):69. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000047629329153
  • Ottosson J Is ECT an ethical treatment? Psychiatric Times; 2004 Available from https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/electroconvulsive-therapy/ect-ethical-treatment. Accessed 129, 2019..
  • Wachtel LE, Griffin MM, Dhossche DM, Reti IM. Brief report: electroconvulsive therapy for malignant catatonia in an autistic adolescent. Autism. 2010;14(4):349–358. doi:10.1177/136236130935013520591959
  • Cooper JJ, Afzal KI. Safety of electroconvulsive therapy in 2 very young pediatric patients with catatonia related to anti-n-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis. J ECT. 2019;35(3):216–217. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000057530720552
  • Takamiya A, Sawada K, Mimura M, Kishimoto T. Attitudes toward electroconvulsive therapy among involuntary and voluntary patients. J ECT. 2019;35(3):165–169. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000057130694874
  • Bilginer C, Karadeniz S. Knowledge, attitudes, and experience of child and adolescent psychiatrists in Turkey concerning pediatric electroconvulsive therapy. Asian J Psychiatr. 2019;46:74–78. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.09.03531639553
  • De Meulenaere M, De Meulenaere J, Ghaziuddin N, Sienaert P. Experience, knowledge, and attitudes of child and adolescent psychiatrists in Belgium toward pediatric electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT. 2018;34(4):247–252. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000048929465501
  • van der Wurff FB, Stek ML, Hoogendijk WJ, Beekman AT. Discrepancy between opinion and attitude on the practice of ECT by psychiatrists specializing in old age in the Netherlands. J ECT. 2004;20(1):37–41. doi:10.1097/00124509-200403000-0000815087995
  • Vocke S, Bergmann F, Chikere Y, Loh N, Grozinger M. Electroconvulsive therapy as viewed by German psychiatrists: a comparison of 3 subgroups. J ECT. 2015;31(2):110–113. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000020825621540
  • Schweder LJ, Lydersen S, Wahlund B, Bergsholm P, Linaker OM. Electroconvulsive therapy in Norway: rates of use, clinical characteristics, diagnoses, and attitude. J ECT. 2011;27(4):292–295. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318208e24b21983754
  • Anand S, Kumar Paliwal V, Singh LS, Uniyal R. Why do neurologists miss catatonia in neurology emergency? a case series and brief literature review. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2019;184:105375. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2019.10537531147176
  • Cooper JJ, Roig Llesuy J. Catatonia education: needs assessment and brief online intervention. Acad Psychiatry. 2017;41(3):360–363. doi:10.1007/s40596-016-0632-x27837452
  • Majnoni d’Intignano L, Granon O, Fovet T, Thomas P, Bonin B, Amad A. Catatonia education in France: a cross-sectional study. Encephale. 2019;45(5):391–396. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2019.03.00431227209
  • Azzam PN, Gopalan P, Brown JR, Aquino PR. Physical examination for the academic psychiatrist: primer and common clinical scenarios. Acad Psychiatry. 2016;40(2):321–327. doi:10.1007/s40596-015-0334-925894730
  • Medina M, Garza DM, Cooper JJ. Physical examination skills among chief residents in psychiatry: practices, attitudes, and self-perceived knowledge. Acad Psychiatry. 2020;44(1):68–72. doi:10.1007/s40596-019-01124-931659714
  • Edelen CG. Access to outpatient electroconvulsive therapy at VA medical centers. J ECT. 2018;34(2):133–134. doi:10.1097/YCT.0000000000000493
  • Case BG, Bertollo DN, Laska EM, et al. Declining use of electroconvulsive therapy in United States general hospitals. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73(2):119–126. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.09.00523059049
  • Patel RS, Sreeram V, Thakur T, Bachu R, Youssef NA. A national study for regional variation of inpatient ECT utilization from 4411 hospitals across the United States. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2019;31(3):200–208.31369658
  • Williams J, Chiu L, Livingston R. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and race: a report of ECT use and sociodemographic trends in Texas. J ECT. 2017;33(2):111–116. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000037928009623
  • Ona CM, Onoye JM, Goebert D, et al. Sociodemographic characterization of ECT utilization in Hawaii. J ECT. 2014;30(1):43–46. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000007524080537
  • Euba R. Electroconvulsive therapy and ethnicity. J ECT. 2012;28(1):24–26. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e318223834e21983756
  • Kalisova L, Madlova K, Albrecht J, Michalec J, Kubinova M, Raboch J. Electroconvulsive therapy in the Czech Republic. J ECT. 2018;34(2):108–112. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000046629166317
  • Buley N, Copland E, Hodge S, Chaplin R. A further decrease in the rates of administration of electroconvulsive therapy in England. J ECT. 2017;33(3):198–202. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000037427930427
  • Gazdag G, Dragasek J, Takacs R, et al. Use of electroconvulsive therapy in central-eastern European countries: an overview. Psychiatr Danub. 2017;29(2):136–140. doi:10.24869/psyd.2017.13628636570
  • Ma Y, Rosenheck R, Fan N, He H. Rates and patient characteristics of electroconvulsive therapy in China and comparisons with the United States. J ECT. 2019;35(4):251–257. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000058931764448
  • Benson-Martin JJ, Milligan PD. A survey of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy in South Africa. J ECT. 2015;31(4):253–257. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000023925856021
  • Sanz-Fuentenebro J, Vera I, Verdura E, et al. Pattern of electroconvulsive therapy use in Spain: proposals for an optimal practice and equitable access. Rev Psiquiatr Salud Ment. 2017;10(2):87–95. doi:10.1016/j.rpsm.2015.12.00326907892
  • Takebayashi M. The development of electroconvulsive therapy in Japan. J ECT. 2010;26(1):14–15. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181c18a7920190595
  • Delva NJ, Graf P, Patry S, et al. Access to electroconvulsive therapy services in Canada. J ECT. 2011;27(4):300–309.21983755
  • Kaliora SC, Braga RJ, Petrides G, Chatzimanolis J, Papadimitriou GN, Zervas IM. The practice of electroconvulsive therapy in Greece. J ECT. 2013;29(3):219–224. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31827e0d4923296395
  • Buccelli C, Di Lorenzo P, Paternoster M, D’Urso G, Graziano V, Niola M. Electroconvulsive therapy in Italy: will public controversies ever stop? J ECT. 2016;32(3):207–211. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000030126841302
  • James BO, Inogbo CF. Implementing modified electroconvulsive therapy in Nigeria: current status and psychiatrists’ attitudes. J ECT. 2013;29(2):e25–26. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3182801cce23609516
  • Ribeiro RB, Melzer-Ribeiro DL, Rigonatti SP, Cordeiro Q. Electroconvulsive therapy in Brazil after the “psychiatric reform”: a public health problem–example from a university service. J ECT. 2012;28(3):170–173. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e31824d288922551774
  • Chanpattana W, Kramer BA, Kunigiri G, Gangadhar BN, Kitphati R, Andrade C. A survey of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy in Asia. J ECT. 2010;26(1):5–10. doi:10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181a7436819444137
  • Nordanskog P, Hulten M, Landen M, Lundberg J, von Knorring L, Nordenskjold A. Electroconvulsive therapy in Sweden 2013: data from the national quality register for ECT. J ECT. 2015;31(4):263–267. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000024325973769
  • Bjornshauge D, Hjerrild S, Videbech P. Electroconvulsive therapy practice in the Kingdom of Denmark: a nationwide register and questionnaire-based study. J ECT. 2019;35(4):258–263. doi:10.1097/YCT.000000000000058631764449
  • Fink M, Fricchione G, Rummans T, Shorter E. Catatonia is a systemic medical syndrome. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2016;133(3):250–251. doi:10.1111/acps.1251026426740
  • Schildkrout B, Benjamin S, Lauterbach MD. Integrating neuroscience knowledge and neuropsychiatric skills into psychiatry: the way forward. Acad Med. 2016;91(5):650–656. doi:10.1097/ACM.000000000000100326630604
  • Arbuckle MR, Travis MJ, Ross DA. Integrating a neuroscience perspective into clinical psychiatry today. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74(4):313–314. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.384928273288
  • Francis A, Fink M. Catatonia. Catatonia Information Center; 2017 Available from https://sites.psu.edu/catatonia/about-us. Accessed 23, 2020.
  • Cooper JJ, Lichtor S Electroconvulsive therapy, autism, and catatonia. National Neuroscience Curriculum Initiative; 2017 Available from https://www.nncionline.org/course/electroconvulsive-therapy-autism-and-catatonia/. Accessed 423, 2020.
  • The NNCI “Quarantine Curriculum” Committee. NNCI quarantine curriculum. National Neuroscience Curriculum Initiative; 2020 Available from https://www.nncionline.org/nnci-quarantine-curriculum. Accessed 423, 2020..
  • Cooper JJ, Korb AS, Akil M. Bringing neuroscience to the bedside. Focus (Am Psychiatr Publ). 2019;17(1):2–7. doi:10.1176/appi.focus.2018003331975952
  • Stone J, Collier S. Moving Toward an Evidence-Based Protocol for Electroconvulsive Therapy. Poster presented at: Annual International Society for ECT and Neurostimulation (ISEN) Conference; May 6, 2018; New York City, NY