Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: An Overview

References

• Northway WH, Rosan RC, Porter DY. Pulmonary disease following respirator therapy of hyaline-membrane disease. Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. N Eng J Med. 1967;276(7):357–368. doi:10.1056/NEJM196702162760701
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merritt TA, Deming DD, Boynton BR. The ‘new’ bronchopulmonary dysplasia: challenges and commentary. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:345–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shennan AT, Dunn MS, Ohlsson A, Lennox K, Hoskins EM. Abnormal pulmonary outcomes in premature infants: prediction from oxygen requirement in the neonatal period. Pediatrics. 1988;8(2):527–532.
   Google Scholar
• Beam KS, Aliaga S, Ahlfeld SK, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Smith PB, Laughon MM. A systematic review of randomized controlled trials for the prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in infants. J Perinatol. 2014;34:705–710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Marter LJ. Epidemiology of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:358–366. doi:10.1016/j.siny.2009.08.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jobe AJ. The new BPD: an arrest of lung development. Pediatr Res. 1999;46(6):641–643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jobe AH, Bancalari E. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163(7):1723–1729.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jobe AH. Mechanisms of lung injury and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Perinatol. 2016;33:1076–1078.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speer CP. Inflammation and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Semin Neonatol. 2003;8:29–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hislop AA, Wigglesworth JS, Desai R. Alveolar development in the human fetus and infant. Early Hum Dev. 1986;13:1–11. doi:10.1016/0378-3782(86)90092-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day CL, Ryan RM. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: new becomes old again! Pediatr Res. 2017;81(1):210–213. doi:10.1038/pr.2016.201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coalson JJ. Pathology of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Semin Perinatol. 2006;30:179–184. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2006.05.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Husain AN, Siddiqui NH, Stocker JT. Pathology of arrested acinar development in postsurfactant bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Hum Pathol. 1998;29:710–717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thibeault DW, Mabry SM, Ekekezie II, Truog WE. Lung elastic tissue maturation and perturbations during the evolution of chronic lung disease. Pediatrics. 2000;106:1452–1459.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attar MA, Donn SM. Mechanisms of ventilator-induced lung injury in premature infants. Semin Neonatol. 2002;7:353–360.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Toews GB. Cellular alterations in fibroproliferative lung disease. Chest. 1999;116(1 Suppl):112S–116S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fanaroff AA, Stoll BJ, Wright LL, et al.; NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Trends in neonatal morbidity and mortality for very low birthweight infants. Am J Obstet Gynec. 2007;196:147.e1–147.e8.
   Google Scholar
• Fanaroff AA, Wright LL, Stevenson KD, et al. Very-low-birth-weight outcomes of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, May 1991 through December 1992. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;179:1632–1639.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hack M, Horbar JD, Malloy MH, Tyson JE, Wright E, Wright L. Very low birth weight outcomes of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Developmental Neonatal Network. Pediatrics. 1991;87:587–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costeloe K, Hennessy E, Gibson AT, Marlow N, Wilkinson AR. The EPICure study: outcomes to discharge from hospital for infants born at the threshold of viability. Pediatrics. 2000;106:659–671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassler D. Inhalation or instillation of steroids for the prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Neonatology. 2015;107:358–359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan RM, Keller RL, Poindexter BB, et al. Respiratory medications in infants <29 weeks during the first year postdischarge: the prematurity and respiratory outcomes program (PROP) consortium. J Pediatr. 2019;208:148–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Bell EF, et al.; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. Trends in care practices, morbidity, and mortality of extremely preterm neonates, 1993–2012. JAMA. 2015;314(10):1039–1051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isayama T, Lee SK, Yang J, Lee D. Revisiting the definition of bronchopulmonary dysplasia effect of changing panoply of respiratory support for preterm neonates. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(3):271–279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poindexter BB, Feng R, Schmidt B, et al. Comparisons and limitations of current definitions of bronchopulmonary dysplasia for the prematurity and respiratory outcomes program. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2015;12:1822–1830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akangire G, Manimtim W, Nyp MF, et al. Clinical outcomes among diagnostic subgroups of infants with severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia through 2 years of age. Am J Perinatol. 2018;35:1376–1387.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmalisch G, Wilitzki S, Roehr CC, Proquitte H, Buhrer C. Development of lung function in very low birth weight infants with or without bronchopulmonary dysplasia: longitudinal assessment during the first 15 months of corrected age. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:37.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller RL, Feng R, DeMauro SB, et al. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia and perinatal characteristics predict 1-year respiratory outcomes in newborns born at extremely low gestational age: a prospective cohort study. J Pediatr. 2017;187:89–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoo AF, Henschen M, Dezateux C, Costeloe K, Stocks J. Respiratory function among preterm infants whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;1538:700–705.
   Google Scholar
• Hoo AF, Stocks J, Lum S, et al. Development of lung function in early life: influence of birth weight in infants of nonsmokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;170:527–533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen EA, Foglia EE, Dysart KC, et al. Adverse effects of small for gestational age differ by gestational week among very preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2019;104:F192–F198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watterberg KL, Demers LM, Scott SM, Murphy S. Chorioamnionitis and early lung inflammation in infants in whom bronchopulmonary dysplasia develops. Pediatrics. 1996;97:210–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernirschke K. Abnormalities of the human placenta. NeoReviews. 2005;6(9):e414–e423. doi:10.1542/neo.6-9-e414
   Google Scholar
• Gomez R, Romero R, Ghezzi F, Yoon BH, Mazor M, Berry SM. The fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;179:194–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viscardi RM. Perinatal inflammation and lung injury. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;17(1):30–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massaro GD, Massaro D. Formation of pulmonary alveoli and gas-exchange surface area: quantitation and regulation. Annu Rev Physiol. 1996;58:73–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jobe AH, Newnham J, Willet K, Sly P, Ikegami M. Fetal versus maternal and gestational age effects of repetitive antenatal glucocorticoids. Pediatrics. 1998;102:1116–1125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkerton KE, Willet KE, Peake J, Sly PD, Jobe AH, Ikegami M. Prenatal glucocorticoid and T4 effects on lung morphology in preterm lambs. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:624–630.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts D, Brown J, Medley N, Dalziel SR. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;3:CD004454.
   Google Scholar
• Jensen EA. Prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a summary of evidence-based strategies. NeoReviews. 2019;20(4):e189–e201. doi:10.1542/neo.20-4-e189
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carlo WA, McDonald SA, Fanaroff AA, et al.; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. Association of antenatal corticosteroids with mortality and neurodevelopmental outcomes among infants born at 22 to 25 weeks’ gestation. JAMA. 2011;306(21):2348–2358. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Sayed YY, Borders AEB; American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Committee on Obstetric Practice. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal maturation. Committee Opinion No 713. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;130(2):e102–e109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. John EB, Carlo WA. Respiratory distress syndrome in VLBW infants: changes in management and outcomes observed by the NICHD neonatal research network. Semin Perinatol. 2003;27(4):288–292. doi:10.1016/S0146-0005(03)00056-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langston C, Kida D, Reed M, Thurlbeck W. Human lung growth in late gestation and in the neonate. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984;129:607–613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laughon MM, Smith PB, Bose C. Prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:374–382. doi:10.1016/j.siny.2009.08.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlo WA, Stark AR, Wright LL, et al. Minimal ventilation to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in extremely-low-birth-weight infants. J Pediatr. 2002;141:370–374. doi:10.1067/mpd.2002.127507
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thome U, Kossel H, Lipowsky G, et al. Permissive hypercapnia in extremely low birthweight infants (PHELBI): a randomised controlled multicentre trial. Lancet. 2015;3:534–543.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muscedere JG, Mullen JB, Gan K, Slusky AS. Tidal ventilation at low airway pressures can augment lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:1327–1334. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.149.5.8173774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremblay LN, Slutsky AS. Ventilator-induced injury: from barotrauma to biotrauma. Proc Assoc Am Physicians. 1998;110(6):482–488.
   Google Scholar
• Tremblay L, Valenza F, Ribeiro SP, Li J, Slutsky AS. Injurious ventilatory strategies increase cytokines and c-fos m-RNA expression in an isolated rat lung model. J Clin Invest. 1997;99(5):944–952. doi:10.1172/JCI119259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finer NN, Carlo WA, et al.; SUPPORT Study Group of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Early CPAP versus surfactant in extremely preterm infants. [Published correction N Engl J Med. 2010 Jun 10;362(23):2235]. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(21):1970–1979.
   Google Scholar
• Morley CJ, Davis PG, Doyle LW, et al. Nasal CPAP or intubation at birth for very preterm infants. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(7):700–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn MS, Kaempf J, de Klerk A, et al. Randomized trial comparing 3 approaches to the initial respiratory management of preterm neonates. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e1069–e1076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramaniam P, Ho JJ, Davis PG. Prophylactic nasal continuous positive airway pressure for preventing morbidity and mortality in very preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;6:CD001243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemyre B, Davis PG, De Paoli AG, Kirpalani H. Nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) versus nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) for preterm neonates after extubation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;2:CD003212.
   Google Scholar
• Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Policy Statement. Respiratory support in preterm infants at birth. Pediatrics. 2014;133(1):171–174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klingenberg C, Wheeler KI, McCallion N, Morley CJ, Davis PG. Volume-targeted versus pressure-limited ventilation in neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;10:CD003666.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoder BA, Siler-Khodr T, Winter VT, Coalson JJ. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation: effects on lung function, mechanics, and airway cytokines in the immature baboon model for neonatal chronic lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:1867–1876.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cools F, Offringa M, Askie LM. Elective high frequency oscillatory ventilation versus conventional ventilation for acute pulmonary dysfunction in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;3(3):CD000104.
   Google Scholar
• Courtney SE, Durand DJ, Asselin JM, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation versus conventional mechanical ventilation for very-low-birth-weight infants. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:643–652.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh W, Poindexter BB, Perritt R, et al.; Neonatal Research Network. Association between fluid intake and weight loss during the first ten days of life and risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in extremely low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 2005;147(6):786–790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palta M, Gabbert D, Weinstein MR, Peters ME. Multivariate assessment of traditional risk factors for chronic lung disease in very low birth weight neonates. The Newborn Lung Project. J Pediatr. 1991;119(2):285–292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiswell TE, Tin W, Ohler K. Evidence-based use of adjunctive therapies to ventilation. Clin Perinatol. 2007;34:191–204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slaughter JL, Stenger MR, Reagan PB. Variation in the use of diuretic therapy for infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics. 2013;131:716–723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dikshit K, Vyden JK, Forrester JS, et al. Renal and extrarenal hemodynamic effects of furosemide in congestive heart failure after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1973;288(21):1087–1090.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart A, Brion LP, Ambrosio-Perez I. Diuretics acting on the distal renal tubule for preterm infants with (or developing) chronic lung disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;9:CD001817.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaisdell CJ, Troendle J, Azjicek A. Acute responses to diuretic therapy in extremely low gestational age newborns: results from the prematurity and respiratory outcomes program cohort study. J Pediatr. 2018;197:42–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almirall JJ, Dolman CS, Eidelman DH. Furosemide-induced bronchodilation in the rat bronchus: evidence of a role for prostaglandins. Lung. 1997;175(3):155–163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bland RD, McMillan DD, Bressack MA. Decreased pulmonary transvascular fluid filtration in awake newborn lambs after intravenous furosemide. J Clin Invest. 1978;62(3):601–609.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demling RH, Will JA. The effect of furosemide on the pulmonary transvascular fluid filtration rate. Crit Care Med. 1978;6(5):317–319.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green TP, Thompson TR, Johnson DE, Lock JE. Furosemide use in premature infants and appearance of patent ductus arteriosus. Am J Dis Child. 1981;135(3):239–243.
   Google Scholar
• Green TP, Thompson TR, Johnson DE, Lock JE. Furosemide promotes patent ductus arteriosus in premature infants with the respiratory-distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1983;308(13):743–748.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toyoshima K, Momma K, Nakanishi T. In vivo dilatation of the ductus arteriosus induced by furosemide in the rat. Pediatr Res. 2010;67(2):173–176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baud O, Maury L, Lebail F, et al. Effect of early low-dose hydrocortisone on survival without bronchopulmonary dysplasia in extremely preterm infants (PREMILOC): a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre, randomised trial. Lancet. 2016;387(10030):1827–1836.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watterberg KL, Scott SM. Evidence of early adrenal insufficiency in babies who develop bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics. 1995;95:120–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watterberg KL, Gerdes JS, Gifford KL, Lin HM. Prophylaxis against early adrenal insufficiency to prevent chronic lung disease in premature infants. Pediatrics. 1999;104:1258–1263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watterberg KL, Gerdes JS, Cole CH, et al. Prophylaxis of early adrenal insufficiency to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a multicenter trial. Pediatrics. 2004;114:1649–1657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle LW, Ehrenkranz RA, Halliday HL. Early (<8 days) postnatal corticosteroids for preventing chronic lung disease in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;13(5):CD001146.
   Google Scholar
• Ghanta S, Tropea LK, Christou H. An update on pharmacologic approaches to bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Semin Perinatol. 2013;37:115–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stark AR, Carlo WA, Tyson JE, et al. Adverse effects of early dexamethasone in extremely-low-birth-weight infants. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:95–101.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly EN, Shah VS, Levenbach J, et al. Inhaled and systemic steroid exposure and neurodevelopmental outcome of preterm neonates. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2018;31(20):2665–2672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tin W, Wiswell TE. Drug therapies in bronchopulmonary dysplasia: debunking the myths. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:383–390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn & Canadian Paediatric Society Fetus and Newborn Committee. Postnatal corticosteroids to treat or prevent chronic lung disease in preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2002;109(2):330–338.
   Google Scholar
• Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Policy statement-postnatal corticosteroids to prevent or treat bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics. 2010;126(4):800–808.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donn SM. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: myths of pharmacologic management. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2017;22(5):354–358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jobe AH, Ikegami M. Mechanisms initiating lung injury in the preterm. Early Hum Dev. 1998;53(1):81–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kribs A, Pillekamp F, Hünseler C, et al. Early administration of surfactant in spontaneous breathing with nCPAP: feasibility and outcome in extremely premature infants (postmenstrual age <27 weeks). Paediatr Anaesth. 2007;17:364–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahadue FL, Soll R. Early versus delayed selective surfactant treatment for neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;11:CD001456.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens TP, Blennow M, Myers EH, Soll R. Early surfactant administration with brief ventilation vs. selective surfactant and continued mechanical ventilation for preterm infants with or at risk for respiratory distress syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;4:CD003063.
   Google Scholar
• Vannozzi I, Ciantelli M, Moscuzza F, et al. Catheter and laryngeal mask endotracheal surfactant therapy: the CALMEST approach as a novel MIST technique. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2017;30(19):2375–2377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurepa D, Perveen S, Lipener Y, Kakkilaya V. The use of less invasive surfactant administration (LISA) in the United States with review of the literature. J Perinatol. 2019;39:426–432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt B, Roberts RS, Davis P, et al. Caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2112–2121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis JM, Bhutani VK, Stefano JL, et al. Changes in pulmonary mechanics following caffeine administration in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1989;6:49–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballard RA, Ruog WE, Cnaan A, et al.; NO CLD Study Group. Inhaled nitric oxide in preterm infants undergoing mechanical ventilation. [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 2007; 357:1444–1445]. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(4):343–353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasan SU, Potenziano J, Konduri GG, et al. Effect of inhaled nitric oxide on survival without bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(11):1081–1089.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrington KJ, Finer N, Pennaforte T. Inhaled nitric oxide for respiratory failure in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;1(1):CD000509.
   Google Scholar
• Murtha AP, Edwards JM. The role of mycoplasma and ureaplasma in adverse pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2014;33:697–702.
   Google Scholar
• Viscardi RM, Kallapur SG. Role of ureaplasma respiratory tract colonization in BPD pathogenesis: current concepts and update. Clin Perinatol. 2015;42(4):719–738.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe A, Bush A. Anti-inflammatory effects of macrolides in lung disease. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2001;31(6):464–473.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aghai ZH, Kode A, Saslow JG, et al. Azithromycin suppresses activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines in tracheal aspirate cells from premature infants. Pediatr Res. 2007;62(4):483–488. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e318142582d
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viscardi RM, Othman AA, Hassan HE, et al. Azithromycin to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in Ureaplasma-infected preterm infants: pharmacokinetics, safety, microbial response, and clinical outcomes with a 20-milligram-er-kilogram single intravenous dose. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57(5):2127–2133. doi:10.1128/AAC.02183-12
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith C, Egunsola O, Choonara I, Kotecha S, Jacqz-Aigrain E, Sammons H. Use and safety of azithromycin in neonates: a systematic review. BMJ Open. 2015;5:e008194. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blomhoff R, Green MH, Norum KR. Vitamin A: physiological and biochemical processing. Annu Rev Nutr. 1992;12:37–57. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.12.070192.000345
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyson JE, Wright LL, Oh W, et al. Vitamin A supplementation for extremely-low-birth-weight infants. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1962–1968. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906243402505
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darlow BA, Graham PJ, Rojas-Reyes MX. Vitamin A supplementation to prevent mortality and short- and long-term morbidity in very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;8:CD000501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valenzuela-Stutman D, Marshall G, Tapia JL, et al. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: risk prediction models for very-low-birth-weight infants. J Perinatol. 2019;39:1275–1281. doi:10.1038/s41372-019-0430-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt B, Davis P, Moddemann D, et al. Long-term effects of indomethacin prophylaxis in extremely-low-birth-weight infants. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(26):1966–1972. doi:10.1056/NEJM200106283442602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen EQ, Foglia EE, Schmidt B. Association between prophylactic indomethacin and death or bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Semin Perinatol. 2018;42:228–234. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2018.05.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlsson A, Shah SS. Ibuprofen for the prevention of patent ductus arteriosus in preterm and/or low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;1:CD004213.
   Google Scholar
• Cooke L, Steer PA, Woodgate PG. Indomethacin for asymptomatic patent ductus arteriosus in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;1:CD003745.
   Google Scholar
• Carlo WA, Finer NN, et al.; SUPPORT Study Group of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Target ranges of oxygen saturation in extremely preterm infants. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(21):1959–1969.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Askie LM, Henderson-Smart DJ, Irwig L, Simpson JM. Oxygen-saturation targets and outcomes in extremely preterm infants. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:959–970. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa023080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The STOP-ROP Multicenter Study Group. Supplemental Therapeutic Oxygen for Prethreshold Retinopathy of Prematurity (STOP-ROP), a randomized, controlled trial. I: primary outcomes. Pediatrics. 2000;105:295–310. doi:10.1542/peds.105.2.295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manja V, Lakshminrusimha S, Cook DJ. Oxygen saturation target range for extremely preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(4):332–340. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.3307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings JJ, Polin RA; AAP Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Oxygen targeting in extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 2016;138(2):e20161576. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-1576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Askie LM, Darlow BA, Finer N, et al. Association between oxygen saturation targeting and death or disability in extremely preterm infants in the neonatal oxygenation prospective meta-analysis collaboration. JAMA. 2018;319(21):2190–2201. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.5725
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slaughter JL, Stenger MR, Reagan PB, Jadcherla SR. Inhaled bronchodilator use for infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Perinatol. 2015;35:61–66. doi:10.1038/jp.2014.141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch A, Kreutzer KB, Poets C, et al. The impact of inhaled bronchodilators on bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a nonrandomized comparison from the NEuroSIS trial. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019:1–3. doi:10.1080/14767058.2019.1590331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denjean A, Paris-LLado J, Zupan V, et al. Inhaled salbutamol and beclomethasone for preventing broncho-pulmonary dysplasia: a randomised double-blind study. Eur J Pediatr. 1998;157(11):926–931. doi:10.1007/s004310050969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle LW, Cheong JL, Ehrenkranz RA, Halliday HL. Late (>7 days) systemic postnatal corticosteroids for prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;10:CD001145.
   Google Scholar
• Doyle LW, Halliday HL, Ehrenkranz RA, et al. Impact of postnatal systemic corticosteroids on mortality and cerebral palsy in preterm infants: effect modification by risk for chronic lung disease. Pediatrics. 2005;115:655–661. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoder BA, Harrison M, Clark RH. Time-related changes in steroid use and bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):673–679. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laughon M, Bose C, Moya F, et al. A pilot randomized, controlled trial of later treatment with a peptide-containing, synthetic surfactant for the prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics. 2009;123:89–96. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2680
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merrill JD, Ballard RA, Cnaan A, et al. Dysfunction of pulmonary surfactant in chronically ventilated premature infants. Pediatr Res. 2004;56:918–926. doi:10.1203/01.PDR.0000145565.45490.D9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark RH, Gerstmann DR, Jobe AH, Moffitt ST, Slutsky AS, Yoder BA. Lung injury in neonates: causes, strategies for prevention, and long-term consequences. J Pediatr. 2001;139(4):478–486. doi:10.1067/mpd.2001.118201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank L, Sosenko IR. Undernutrition as a major contributing factor in the pathogenesis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;138:725–729. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/138.3.725
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spiegler J, Preuß M, Gebauer C, Bendiks M, Herting E, Göpel W; German Neonatal Network. Does breastmilk influence the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia? J Pediatr. 2016;169:76–80. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.10.080
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hair AB, Peluso AM, Hawthorne KM, et al. Beyond necrotizing enterocolitis prevention: improving outcomes with an exclusive human milk-based diet. Breastfeed Med. 2016;11(2):70–74. doi:10.1089/bfm.2015.0134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smyth JA, Tabachnik E, Duncan WJ, et al. Pulmonary function and bronchial hyperreactivity in long-term survivors of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics. 1981;68(3):336–340.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrod JR, L’Heureux P, Wangensteen OD, et al. Long-term follow-up severe respiratory distress syndrome treated with IPPB. J Pediatr. 1974;84:277.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhatt-Mehta V, Donn Steven M. Sildenafil for pulmonary hypertension complicating bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Clin Pharmacol. 2014;7(4):393–395.
   Google Scholar
• Henner N, Davis JM. Etiology and pathogenesis. In: Donn SM, Sinha SK, editors. Manual of Neonatal Respiratory Care. 3rd ed. New York: Springer Science+Business Media; 2012:625–631.
   Google Scholar
• Lagatta JM, Hysinger EB, Zaniletti I, et al. The impact of pulmonary hypertension in preterm infants with severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia through 1 year. J Pediatr. 2018;203:218–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mourani PM, Abman SH. Pulmonary vascular disease in bronchopulmonary dysplasia: pulmonary hypertension and beyond. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2013;25:329–337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• An HS, Bae EJ, Kim GB, et al. Pulmonary hypertension in preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Korean Circ J. 2010;40:131–136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bhat R, Salas AA, Foster C, Carlo WA, Ambalavanan N. Prospective analysis of pulmonary hypertension in extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 2012;129:682–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bui CB, Pang MA, Sehgal A, et al. Pulmonary hypertension associated with bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants. J Reprod Immunol. 2017;124:21–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porta NF, Steinhorn RH. Pulmonary vasodilator therapy in the NICU: inhaled nitric oxide, sildenafil and other pulmonary vasodilating agents. Clin Perinatol. 2012;39(1):149–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermont Oxford Network. NICU by the Numbers. Nearly One in Five 22–29 Week Infants Requires Respiratory Support to Transition Home. Edwards E, Editor; June 2020:10
   Google Scholar
• DeMauro SB, Jensen EA, Bann CM, et al. Home oxygen and 2-year outcomes of preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics. 2019;143(5):e20182956akan.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cristea AI, Carrol AE, Davis SD, et al. Outcomes of children with severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia who were ventilator dependent at home. Pediatrics. 2013;132(3):e727–e734.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandy G, Malkar M, Welty SE, et al. Tracheostomy placement in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: safety and outcomes. Pediatr Pumonol. 2013;48(3):245–249.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gien J, Kinsella J, Thrasher J, et al. Retrospective analysis of an interdisciplinary ventilator care program intervention on survival of infants with ventilator-dependent bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Perinatol. 2017;34:155–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carraro S, Filippone M, Da Dalt L, et al. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: the earliest and perhaps the longest lasting obstructive lung disease in humans. Early Hum Dev. 2013;89(Suppl 3):S3–S5.
   Google Scholar
• Committee on Infectious Diseases and Bronchiolitis Guidelines Committee. Updated guidance for palivizumab prophylaxis among infants and young children at increased risk of hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatrics. 2014;134(2):415–420.
   Google Scholar