Equine viral encephalitis: prevalence, impact, and management strategies

References

• Long MT. West nile virus and equine encephalitis viruses. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 2014;30:523–542. doi:10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.00125441112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar B, Manuja A, Gulati B, Virmani N, Tripathi BN. Zoonotic viral diseases of equines and their impact on human and animal health. TOVJ. 2018;12:80–98. doi:10.2174/187435790181201008030288197
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chapman GE, Baylis M, Archer D, Daly JM. The challenges posed by equine arboviruses. Equine Vet J. 2018;50:436–445. doi:10.1111/evj.1282929517814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zacks MA, Paessler S. Encephalitic alphaviruses. Vet Microbiol. 2010;140(3–4):281–286. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.08.02319775836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brault AC, Powers AM, Villarreal Chavez CL, et al. Genetic and antigenic diversity among eastern equine encephalitis viruses from North, Central, and South America. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;61:579–586. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1999.61.57910548292
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham AC, Ledermann JP, Saxton-Shaw KD, et al. The first outbreak of Eastern equine encephalitis in Vermont: outbreak description and phylogenetic relationships of the virus isolate. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0128712. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.012871226043136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocheleau JP, Arsenault J, Ogden NH, Lindsay LR, Drebot M, Michel P. Characterizing areas of potential human exposure to eastern equine encephalitis virus using serological and clinical data from horses. Epidemiol Infect. 2017;145:667–677. doi:10.1017/S095026881700066827903326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocheleau J-P, Arsenault J, Lindsay LR, et al. Eastern equine encephalitis virus: high seroprevalence in horses from Southern Quebec, Canada, 2012. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2013;13:712–718. doi:10.1089/vbz.2012.096423919607
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riet-Correa F, Nogueira ML, VMK M, et al. Isolation and characterization of madariaga virus from a Horse in Paraíba State, Brazil. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2015;64:990–993. doi:10.1111/tbed.1238226608567
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguilar PV, Robich RM, Turell MJ, et al. Endemic eastern equine encephalitis in the Amazon region of Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;76:293–298. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.29317297038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrera J-P, Forrester N, Wang E, et al. Eastern equine encephalitis in Latin America. New Engl J Med. 2013;369:732–744. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa121262823964935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Novaes Oliveira R, Iamamoto K, Silva MLCR, et al. Eastern equine encephalitis cases among horses in Brazil between 2005 and 2009. Arch Virol. 2014;159:2615–2620. doi:10.1007/s00705-014-2121-424862186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva MLCR, Galiza GJN, Dantas AFM, et al. Outbreaks of eastern equine encephalitis in northeastern Brazil. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2011;23:570–575. doi:10.1177/104063871140341421908293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pauvolid-Corrêa A, Soares Juliano R, Campos Z, Velez J, Nogueira RMR, Komar N. Neutralising antibodies for mayaro virus in Pantanal, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:125–133. doi:10.1590/0074-0276014038325742272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi SS, Braun WA, Auguste AJ, Bergren NA, Forrester NL, Weaver SC. Western equine encephalitis virus: evolutionary analysis of a declining alphavirus based on complete genome sequences. J Virol. 2014;88:9260–9267. doi:10.1128/JVI.01463-1424899192
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgueño A, Frabasile S, Díaz LA, et al. Genomic characterization and seroprevalence studies on alphaviruses in Uruguay. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2018;98:1811–1818. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-098029633690
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delfaro A, Burgueño A, Morel N, et al. Fatal human case of Western Equine Encephalitis, Uruguay. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:952–954. doi:10.3201/eid1701.10087621529429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kading RC, Hartman DA, Bergren NA, et al. Continued evidence of decline in the enzootic activity of western equine encephalitis virus in Colorado. J Med Entomol. 2018;1987:1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Estrada-Franco JG, Carrara A-S, Aronson JF, Weaver SC, Gonzalez D. Equine amplification and virulence of subtype IE venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses isolated during the 1993 and 1996 Mexican Epizootics. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;9:162–168.
   Google Scholar
• Forrester NL, Wertheim JO, Dugan VG, et al. Evolution and spread of Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphavirus in the Americas. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:1–19. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005693
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarro-Lopez R, Clements T, Freier JE, et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Southern Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;10:2113–2121.
   Google Scholar
• Adams AP, Navarro-Lopez R, Ramirez-Aguilar FJ, et al. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus activity in the Gulf Coast region of Mexico, 2003-2010. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6:2003–2010. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001875
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David S, Abraham AM. Epidemiological and clinical aspects on West Nile virus, a globally emerging pathogen. Infect Dis (Lond). 2016;48:571–586. doi:10.3109/23744235.2016.116489027207312
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunning ML, Bowen RA, Cropp CB, et al. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:380–386. doi:10.3201/eid0804.01023911971771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer LD, Styer LM, Ebel GD. A global perspective on the epidemiology of West Nile virus. Annu Rev Entomol. 2008;53:61–81.17645411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmeister EK. West Nile virus: north American experience. Integr Zool. 2011;6:279–289. doi:10.1111/j.1749-4877.2011.00251.x21910847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakonyi T, Ivanics E, Erdelyi K, et al. Lineage 1 and 2 strains of encephalitic West Nile virus, central Europe. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:618–623. doi:10.3201/eid1204.05137916704810
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Hurk AF, Hall-Mendelin S, Webb CE, et al. Role of enhanced vector transmission of a new West Nile virus strain in an outbreak of equine disease in Australia in 2011. Parasit Vectors. 2014;7:586. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-7-2325499981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prow NA, Edmonds JH, Williams DT, et al. Virulence and evolution of West Nile Virus, Australia, 1960-2012. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22:1353–1362. doi:10.3201/eid2208.15171927433830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar K, Arshad SS, Selvarajah GT, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in livestock and companion animal in high-risk areas in Malaysia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2018;50:741–752. doi:10.1007/s11250-017-1490-629243139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricklin ME, Garcia-Nicolas O, Brechbuhl D, et al. Japanese encephalitis virus tropism in experimentally infected pigs. Vet Res. 2016;47:34. doi:10.1186/s13567-016-0319-z26911997
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansfield KL, Hernandez-Triana LM, Banyard AC, Fooks AR, Johnson N. Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals. Vet Microbiol. 2017;201:85–92. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.01.01428284628
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H, Liang G. Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: past, present, and future prospects. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2015;11:435–448.25848290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang DK, Kim BH, Kweon CH, et al. Serosurveillance for Japanese encephalitis, Akabane, and Aino viruses for Thoroughbred horses in Korea. J Vet Sci. 2008;9:381–385. doi:10.4142/jvs.2008.9.4.38119043313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulati BR, Singha H, Singh BK, Virmani N, Kumar S, Singh RK. Isolation and genetic characterization of Japanese encephalitis virus from equines in India. J Vet Sci. 2012;13:111–118. doi:10.4142/jvs.2012.13.2.11122705732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebihara H, Tomonaga K, Calisher CH, et al. Taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales: update 2017. Arch Virol. 2017;162:2493–2504. doi:10.1007/s00705-017-3383-428389807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barecha CB, Girzaw F, Kandi RV, Pal M. Epidemiology and Public Health Significance of Rabies. Perspect Clin Res. 2017;5:55–67.
   Google Scholar
• Rupprecht CE, Willoughby R, Slate D. Current and future trends in the prevention, treatment and control of rabies. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2006;4:1021–1038. doi:10.1586/14787210.4.6.102117181418
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ma X, Monroe B, Cleaton J, Orciary L, Li Y, Al. E. Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2017. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2018;253:1555–1568. doi:10.2460/javma.253.8.98030668262
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jemberu WT, Molla W, Almaw G, Alemu S. Incidence of rabies in humans and domestic animals and people’s awareness in North Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2216–e2216. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000221623675547
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tizard I, Ball J, Stoica G, Payne S. The pathogenesis of bornaviral diseases in mammals. Anim Health Res Rev. 2016;17:92–109. doi:10.1017/S146625231600006227212192
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipkin WI, Briese T, Hornig M. Borna disease virus - Fact and fantasy. Virus Res. 2011;162:162–172. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2011.09.03621968299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermes N, Eickmann M, Encarnação JA, Herzog S, Becker NI, Herden C. Landscape features and reservoir occurrence affecting the risk for equine infection with Borna disease virus. J Wildl Dis. 2013;49:860–868. doi:10.7589/2012-10-26224502713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ludwig H, Bode L. Borna disease virus: new aspects on infection, disease, diagnosis and epidemiology Introduction and historical development. Rev Sci Tech. 2000;19:259–288.11189720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staeheli P, Sauder C, Hausmann J, Schwemmle M, Ehrensperger F. Epidemiology of Borna disease virus. J Gen Virol. 2000;81:2123–2135. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-81-9-212310950968
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weissenböck H, Bagó Z, Kolodziejek J, et al. Infections of horses and shrews with Bornaviruses in Upper Austria: A novel endemic area of Borna disease. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2017;6:1–9. doi:10.1038/emi.2017.36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priestnall SL, Schoniger S, Ivens PAS, et al. Borna disease virus infection of a horse in Great Britain. Vet Rec. 2011;168:380. doi:10.1136/vr.c6405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Björnsdóttir S, Agustsdóttir E-L, Blomström A-L, et al. Serological markers of Bornavirus infection found in horses in Iceland. Acta Vet Scand. 2013;55:77. doi:10.1186/1751-0147-55-7724180621
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue Y, Yamaguchi K, Sawada T, Rivero JC, Horii Y. Demonstration of continuously seropositive population against Borna disease virus in Misaki Feral horses, a japanese strain: a four-year follow-up study from 1998 to 2001. J Vet Med Sci. 2002;64:445–448. doi:10.1292/jvms.64.44512069079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinnunen PM, Billich C, Ek-Kommonen C, et al. Serological evidence for Borna disease virus infection in humans, wild rodents and other vertebrates in Finland. J Clin Virol. 2007;38:64–69. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2006.10.00317129759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pisoni G, Nativi D, Bronzo V, Codazza D. Sero-epidemiological study of Borna disease virus infection in the Italian equine population. Vet Res Comm. 2007;31:245–248. doi:10.1007/s11259-007-0016-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Wang X, Zhan Q, et al. Evidence for natural Borna disease virus infection in healthy domestic animals in three areas of western China. Arch Virol. 2014;159:1941–1949. doi:10.1007/s00705-013-1971-524573218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dauphin G, Legay V, Pitel P, Zientara S. Borna disease: current knowledge and virus detection in France. Vet Res. 2002;33:127–138. doi:10.1051/vetres:200200211944803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korn K, Coras R, Bobinger T, et al. Fatal encephalitis associated with Borna disease virus 1. New Engl J Med. 2018;379:1375–1377. doi:10.1056/NEJMc180072430281979
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rott R, Herzog S, Fleischer B, et al. Detection of serum antibodies to Borna disease virus in patients with psychiatric disorders. Science. 1985;228:755–756. doi:10.1126/science.39220553922055
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Middleton D. Hendra virus. Vet Clin North Am Eq Pract. 2014;30:579–589. doi:10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh G, Haining J, Hancock TJ, et al. Experimental infection of horses with Hendra virus/Australia/horse/2008/Redlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:2232–2238. doi:10.3201/eid1712.11116222172152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daszak P, Plowright RK, Epstein JH, et al. The emergence of Nipah and Hendra virus: pathogen dynamics across a wildlife-livestock-human continuum In: Collinge SK, Ray C, editors. Disease Ecology: Community Structure and Pathogen Dynamics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2006:186–201.
   Google Scholar
• Hooper P, Zaki S, Daniels P, Middleton D. Comparative pathology of the diseases caused by Hendra and Nipah viruses. Microbes Infect. 2001;3:315–322.11334749
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robin M, Page P, Archer D, Baylis M. African horse sickness: the potential for an outbreak in disease-free regions and current disease control and elimination techniques. Equine Vet J. 2016;48:659–669. doi:10.1111/evj.1260027292229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humblet M, Vandeputte S, Fecher-Bourgeois F, et al. Estimating the economic impact of a possible equine and human epidemic of West Nile virus infection in Belgium. Euro Surveill. 2016;21(31):pii=30309. doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2016.21.31.30309
   Google Scholar
• Weese JS. Infection control and biosecurity in equine disease control. Equine Vet J. 2014;46:654–660. doi:10.1111/evj.1229524802183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timoney PJ. Factors influencing the international spread of equine diseases. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 2000;16:537–551.11219348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaaijk P, Luytjes W. Are we prepared for emerging flaviviruses in Europe? Challenges for vaccination. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2018;14:337–344. doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.138936329053401
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nokes DJ, Anderson RM. The use of mathematical models in the epidemiological study of infectious diseases and in the design of mass immunization programmes. Epidemiol Infect. 1988;101:1–20. doi:10.1017/s09502688000291863042433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson RM, May RM. The invasion, persistence and spread of infectious diseases within animal and plant communities. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1986;314:533–570. doi:10.1098/rstb.1986.00722880354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zinsstag J, Lechenne M, Laager M, et al. Vaccination of dogs in an African city interrupts rabies transmission and reduces human exposure. Sci Transl Med. 2017;9:eaaf6984. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaf698429263230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis C. Insecticide-treated nets against malaria vectors and polystyrene beads against Culex larvae. Trends Parasitol. 2005;21:504–507. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.02516153894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coutinho-Abreu IV, Zhu KY, Ramalho-Ortigao M. Transgenesis and paratransgenesis to control insect-borne diseases: current status and future challenges. Parasitol Int. 2010;59:1–8. doi:10.1016/j.parint.2009.10.00219819346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacey LA, Frutos R, Kaya HK, Vail P. Insect pathogens as biological control agents: do they have a future? Biol Control. 2001;21:230–248. doi:10.1006/bcon.2001.0938
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinkins SP, Gould F. Gene drive systems for insect disease vectors. Nature Rev Genet. 2006;7:427–435. doi:10.1038/nrg187016682981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowman C, Gumel AB, van den Driessche P, Wu J, Zhu H. A mathematical model for assessing control strategies against West Nile virus. Bull Math Biol. 2005;67:1107–1133. doi:10.1016/j.bulm.2005.01.00215998497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wonham MJ, de-Camino-Beck T, Lewis MA. An epidemiological model for West Nile virus: invasion analysis and control applications. Proc Biol Sci. 2004;271:501–507. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.260815129960
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane DP, Little PB. Equine viral encephalomyelitis in Canada: a review of known and potential causes. Can Vet J. 1987;28:497–504.17422841
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ecology WB. How climate change alters rhythms of the wild. Science. 2000;287:793–795. doi:10.1126/science.287.5454.79310691549
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Vos CJ, Hoek CA, Nodelijk G. Risk of introducing African horse sickness virus into the Netherlands by international equine movements. Prev Vet Med. 2012;106(2):108–122. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.01.01922341773
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faverjon C, Leblond A, Hendrikx P, et al. A spatiotemporal model to assess the introduction risk of African horse sickness by import of animals and vectors in France. BMC Vet Res. 2015;11:127. doi:10.1186/s12917-015-0435-426040321
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Githeko AK, Lindsay SW, Confalonieri UE, Patz JA. Climate change and vector-borne diseases: a regional analysis. Bull WHO. 2000;78:1136–1147.11019462
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiter P. Climate change and mosquito-borne disease: knowing the horse before hitching the cart. Rev Sci Tech. 2008;27:383–398.18819667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelen PV, Downs JA, Unnasch T, Stark L. A risk index model for predicting eastern equine encephalitis virus transmission to horses in Florida. Appl Geog. 2014;48:79–86. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.01.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moncayo AC, Edman JD, Finn JT. Application of geographic information technology in determining risk of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus transmission. AMCA. 2000;16:28–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou L, Miller SN, Schmidtmann ET. A GIS tool to estimate West Nile virus risk based on a degree-day model. Environ Monit Assess. 2007;129:413–420. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-9373-817106782
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• University of Kentucky. Equine Disease. 1997 Available from: https://gluck.ca.uky.edu/sites/gluck.ca.uky.edu/files/q_oct_1997.pdf. Accessed July 8, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Borland EM, Ledermann JP, Powers AM. Culex Tarsalis Mosquitoes as Vectors of Highlands J Virus. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2016;16:558–565. doi:10.1089/vbz.2015.190727248005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karabatsos N, Lewis AL, Calisher CH, Hunt AR, Roehrig JT. Identification of Highlands J virus from a Florida horse. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1988;39:603–606. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1988.39.6032849884
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gummow B, Tan RHH, Joice RK, Burgess G, Picard J. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of mosquito-borne alphaviruses in horses in northern Queensland. Aust Vet J. 2018;96:243–251. doi:10.1111/avj.1271129944744
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephenson EB, Peel AJ, Reid SA, Jansen CC, McCallum H. The non-human reservoirs of Ross River virus: A systematic review of the evidence. Parasit Vectors. 2018;11:1–13. doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2573-y29291748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attoui H, Sailleau C, Jaafar FM, et al. Complete nucleotide sequence of Middelburg virus, isolated from the spleen of a horse with severe clinical disease in Zimbabwe. J Gen Virol. 2007;88:3078–3088. doi:10.1099/vir.0.83076-017947533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burt FJ, Goedhals D, Mathengtheng L. Arboviruses in southern Africa: are we missing something? Future Virol. 2014;9:993–1008. doi:10.2217/fvl.14.87
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venter M. Assessing the zoonotic potential of arboviruses of African origin. Curr Opin Virol. 2018;28:74–84. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2017.11.00429216533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niekerk SV, Human S, Williams J, Wilpe EV, Pretorius M, Swanepoel R. Neurologic disease in horses, South Africa. Emerg Infect Dis. 2015;21:2225–2229. doi:10.3201/eid2112.15013226583836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle DB, Dickerman RW, Marshall ID. Primary viraemia responses of herons to experimental infection with Murray Valley encephalitis, Kunjin and Japanese encephalitis viruses. Austr J Exp Biol Med Sci. 1983;61:655–664. doi:10.1038/icb.1983.62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• White GS, Symmes K, Sun P, et al. Reemergence of St. Louis encephalitis virus, California, 2015. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22:2185–2188. doi:10.3201/eid2212.16080527869600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyde J, Nettleton P, Marriott L, Willoughby K. Louping ill in horses. Vet Rec. 2007;160:532. doi:10.1136/vr.160.4.105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Little PB, Thorsen J, Moore W, Weninger N. Powassan viral encephalitis: a review and experimental studies in the horse and rabbit. Vet Pathol. 1985;22:500–507.2996203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rieille N, Klaus C, Hoffmann D, Péter O, Voordouw MJ. Goats as sentinel hosts for the detection of tick-borne encephalitis risk areas in the Canton of Valais, Switzerland. BMC Vet Res. 2017;13:1–13. doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0931-128049469
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rushton JO, Lecollinet S, Hubálek Z, Svobodová P, Lussy H, Nowotny N. Tick-borne encephalitis virus in horses, Austria, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:635–637. doi:10.3201/eid1904.12145023631894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshii K, Song JY, Park SB, Yang J, Schmitt HJ. Tick-borne encephalitis in Japan, Republic of Korea and China. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2017;6:e82.28928417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaty BJ, Bishop DHL. Bunyavirus-vector interactions. Virus Res. 1988;10:289–301.3046165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Eeden C, Williams JH, Gerdes TGH, et al. Shuni virus as cause of neurologic disease in horses. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18:318–321. doi:10.3201/eid1802.11140322305525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter S, Mellor PS, Fall AG, Garros C, Venter GJ. African horse sickness virus: history, transmission, and current status. Annu Rev Entomol. 2017;62:343–358. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-03501028141961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhama K, Pawaiya R, Karthik K, Chakraborty S, Tiwari R, Verna A. Equine encephalosis virus (EEV): a review. AJAVA. 2014;9:123–133.
   Google Scholar
• Lafri I, Prat CM, Bitam I, et al. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus antibodies in equids in the North-East of Algeria and detection of virus circulation in 2014. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;50:8–12. doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2016.11.00528131384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva JR, Medeiros LC, Reis VP, et al. Serologic survey of West Nile virus in horses from Central-West, Northeast and Southeast Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2013;108:921–923. doi:10.1590/S0074-0276201300500000124037110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prow NA, Tan CS, Wang W, et al. Natural exposure of horses to mosquito-borne flaviviruses in south-east Queensland, Australia. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013;10:4432–4443. doi:10.3390/ijerph1009443224048209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocheleau JP, Michel P, Lindsay LR, et al. Emerging arboviruses in Quebec, Canada: assessing public health risk by serology in humans, horses and pet dogs. Epidemiol Infect. 2017;145:2940–2948. doi:10.1017/S095026881700220528956525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabre O, Grandadam M, Marie JL, et al. West Nile Virus in horses, sub-Saharan Africa. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1958–1960. doi:10.3201/eid1212.06004217326952
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbic L, Listes E, Katic S, et al. Spreading of West Nile virus infection in Croatia. Vet Microbiol. 2012;159:504–508. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.04.03822609103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durand B, Dauphin G, Zeller H, et al. Serosurvey for West Nile virus in horses in southern France. Vet Rec. 2005;157:711–713. doi:10.1136/vr.157.22.71116311385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouzalas IG, Diakakis N, Chaintoutis SC, et al. Emergence of equine west nile encephalitis in central Macedonia, Greece, 2010. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2016;63:e219–e227. doi:10.1111/tbed.1233425660661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ludu Oslobanu EL, Mihu-Pintilie A, Anita D, Anita A, Lecollinet S, Savuta G. West Nile virus reemergence in Romania: a serologic survey in host species. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2014;14:330–337. doi:10.1089/vbz.2013.140524745699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calistri P, Giovannini A, Savini G, et al. West Nile virus transmission in 2008 in north-eastern Italy. Zoonoses Public Health. 2010;57:211–219. doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2009.01303.x20042066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibarra-Juarez L, Eisen L, Bolling BG, et al. Detection of West Nile virus-specific antibodies and nucleic acid in horses and mosquitoes, respectively, in Nuevo Leon State, northern Mexico, 2006-2007. Med Vet Entomol. 2012;26:351–354. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.2012.01014.x22490106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjelloun A, El Harrak M, Calistri P, et al. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus in horses in different Moroccan regions. Vet Med Sci. 2017;3:198–207. doi:10.1002/vms3.7129152314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zohaib A, Saqib M, Beck C, et al. High prevalence of West Nile virus in equines from the two provinces of Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect. 2015;143:1931–1935. doi:10.1017/S095026881400287825358382
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazanow B, Jansen van Vuren P, Szymanski P, et al. A survey on West Nile and Usutu viruses in horses and birds in Poland. Viruses. 2018;10:E87. doi:10.3390/v1002008729462983
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemida MG, Perera R, Chu DKW, Ko RLW, Alnaeem AA, Peiris M. West Nile virus infection in horses in Saudi Arabia (in 2013-2015). Zoonoses Public Health. 2019;66:248–253. doi:10.1111/zph.1253230402969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csank T, Drzewniokova P, Korytar L, et al. A SEROSURVEY OF FLAVIVIRUS INFECTION IN HORSES AND BIRDS IN Slovakia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2018;18:206–213. doi:10.1089/vbz.2017.221629437548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Bocanegra I, Arenas-Montes A, Napp S, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors associated to West Nile virus in horses from Andalusia, Southern Spain. Vet Microbiol. 2012;160:341–346. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.06.02722776513
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargaoui R, Lecollinet S, Lancelot R. Mapping the serological prevalence rate of West Nile fever in equids, Tunisia. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2015;62:55–66. doi:10.1111/tbed.1207723906318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ergunay K, Gunay F, Erisoz Kasap O, et al. Serological, molecular and entomological surveillance demonstrates widespread circulation of West Nile virus in Turkey. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(7):e3028. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000302825058465
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler U, Skrypnyk A, Keller M, et al. West nile virus antibody prevalence in horses of Ukraine. Viruses. 2013;5:2469–2482. doi:10.3390/v510246924100889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franson JC, Hofmeister EK, Collins GH, Dusek RJ. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus in feral horses on Sheldon National Wildlife Refuge, Nevada, United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;84:637–640. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2011.10-046721460023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosch I, Herrera F, Navarro JC, et al. West Nile virus, Venezuela. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:651–653. doi:10.3201/eid1304.06138317561567
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar