1,700
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Diagnostic and Prognostic Epigenetic Biomarkers in Cancer

, , &
Pages 1003-1015 | Published online: 07 Oct 2015

References

  • Biomarkers Definitions Working Group . Biomarkers and surrogate endpoints: preferred definitions and conceptual framework . Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.69 ( 3 ), 89 – 95 ( 2001 ).
  • Prensner JR , RubinMA , WeiJT , ChinnaiyanAM . Beyond PSA: the next generation of prostate cancer biomarkers . Sci. Transl. Med.4 ( 127 ), 127rv123 ( 2012 ).
  • Mcshane LM , AltmanDG , SauerbreiW , TaubeSE , GionM , ClarkGM . REporting recommendations for tumour MARKer prognostic studies (REMARK) . Eur. J. Cancer41 ( 12 ), 1690 – 1696 ( 2005 ).
  • Sidransky D . Emerging molecular markers of cancer . Nat. Rev. Cancer2 ( 3 ), 210 – 219 ( 2002 ).
  • Herman JG , BaylinSB . Gene silencing in cancer in association with promoter hypermethylation . N. Engl. J. Med.349 ( 21 ), 2042 – 2054 ( 2003 ).
  • Van Neste L , HermanJG , OttoG , BigleyJW , EpsteinJI , Van CriekingeW . The epigenetic promise for prostate cancer diagnosis . Prostate72 ( 11 ), 1248 – 1261 ( 2012 ).
  • Ferlay J , SoerjomataramI , DikshitRet al. Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: sources, methods and major patterns in GLOBOCAN 2012 . Int. J. Cancer136 ( 5 ), E359 – E386 ( 2015 ).
  • Bourdoumis A , PapatsorisAG , ChrisofosM , EfstathiouE , SkolarikosA , DeliveliotisC . The novel prostate cancer antigen 3 (PCA3) biomarker . Int. Braz. J. Urol.36 ( 6 ), 665 – 668 ; discussion 669 ( 2010 ).
  • Baden J , GreenG , PainterJet al. Multicenter evaluation of an investigational prostate cancer methylation assay . J. Urol.182 ( 3 ), 1186 – 1193 ( 2009 ).
  • Kaufman DS , ShipleyWU , FeldmanAS . Bladder cancer . Lancet374 ( 9685 ), 239 – 249 ( 2009 ).
  • Jung M , MollenkopfHJ , GrimmCet al. MicroRNA profiling of clear cell renal cell cancer identifies a robust signature to define renal malignancy . J. Cell. Mol. Med.13 ( 9B ), 3918 – 3928 ( 2009 ).
  • Hoque MO , BegumS , TopalogluOet al. Quantitative detection of promoter hypermethylation of multiple genes in the tumor, urine, and serum DNA of patients with renal cancer . Cancer Res.64 ( 15 ), 5511 – 5517 ( 2004 ).
  • Dietrich D , KneipC , RajiOet al. Performance evaluation of the DNA methylation biomarker SHOX2 for the aid in diagnosis of lung cancer based on the analysis of bronchial aspirates . Int. J. Oncol.40 ( 3 ), 825 – 832 ( 2012 ).
  • Hennessey PT , SanfordT , ChoudharyAet al. Serum microRNA biomarkers for detection of non-small cell lung cancer . PLoS ONE7 ( 2 ), e32307 ( 2012 ).
  • Kloten V , BeckerB , WinnerKet al. Promoter hypermethylation of the tumor-suppressor genes ITIH5, DKK3, and RASSF1A as novel biomarkers for blood-based breast cancer screening . Breast Cancer Res.15 ( 1 ), R4 ( 2013 ).
  • Rawson JB , BapatB . Epigenetic biomarkers in colorectal cancer diagnostics . Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn.12 ( 5 ), 499 – 509 ( 2012 ).
  • Lao VV , GradyWM . Epigenetics and colorectal cancer . Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.8 ( 12 ), 686 – 700 ( 2011 ).
  • Siegel R , MaJ , ZouZ , JemalA . Cancer statistics, 2014 . CA Cancer J. Clin.64 ( 1 ), 9 – 29 ( 2014 ).
  • Roobol MJ , CarlssonSV . Risk stratification in prostate cancer screening . Nat. Rev. Urol.10 ( 1 ), 38 – 48 ( 2013 ).
  • Costa-Pinheiro P , PatelHR , HenriqueR , JeronimoC . Biomarkers and personalized risk stratification for patients with clinically localized prostate cancer . Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther.14 ( 11 ), 1349 – 1358 ( 2014 ).
  • Martin SK , VaughanTB , AtkinsonT , ZhuH , KyprianouN . Emerging biomarkers of prostate cancer (review) . Oncol. Rep.28 ( 2 ), 409 – 417 ( 2012 ).
  • Sardana G , DiamandisEP . Biomarkers for the diagnosis of new and recurrent prostate cancer . Biomark. Med.6 ( 5 ), 587 – 596 ( 2012 ).
  • Auprich M , BjartellA , ChunFKet al. Contemporary role of prostate cancer antigen 3 in the management of prostate cancer . Eur. Urol.60 ( 5 ), 1045 – 1054 ( 2011 ).
  • Bryant RJ , PawlowskiT , CattoJWet al. Changes in circulating microRNA levels associated with prostate cancer . Br. J. Cancer106 ( 4 ), 768 – 774 ( 2012 ).
  • Cairns P , EstellerM , HermanJGet al. Molecular detection of prostate cancer in urine by GSTP1 hypermethylation . Clin. Cancer Res.7 ( 9 ), 2727 – 2730 ( 2001 ).
  • Goessl C , MullerM , HeicappellRet al. DNA-based detection of prostate cancer in urine after prostatic massage . Urology58 ( 3 ), 335 – 338 ( 2001 ).
  • Jeronimo C , UsadelH , HenriqueRet al. Quantitative GSTP1 hypermethylation in bodily fluids of patients with prostate cancer . Urology60 ( 6 ), 1131 – 1135 ( 2002 ).
  • Gonzalgo ML , PavlovichCP , LeeSM , NelsonWG . Prostate cancer detection by GSTP1 methylation analysis of postbiopsy urine specimens . Clin. Cancer Res.9 ( 7 ), 2673 – 2677 ( 2003 ).
  • Roupret M , HupertanV , YatesDRet al. Molecular detection of localized prostate cancer using quantitative methylation-specific PCR on urinary cells obtained following prostate massage . Clin. Cancer Res.13 ( 6 ), 1720 – 1725 ( 2007 ).
  • Jeronimo C , HenriqueR , HoqueMOet al. A quantitative promoter methylation profile of prostate cancer . Clin. Cancer Res.10 ( 24 ), 8472 – 8478 ( 2004 ).
  • Ellinger J , HaanK , HeukampLCet al. CpG island hypermethylation in cell-free serum DNA identifies patients with localized prostate cancer . Prostate68 ( 1 ), 42 – 49 ( 2008 ).
  • Baden J , AdamsS , AstacioTet al. Predicting prostate biopsy result in men with prostate specific antigen 2.0 to 10.0 ng/ml using an investigational prostate cancer methylation assay . J. Urol.186 ( 5 ), 2101 – 2106 ( 2011 ).
  • Partin AW , Van NesteL , KleinEAet al. Clinical validation of an epigenetic assay to predict negative histopathological results in repeat prostate biopsies . J. Urol.192 ( 4 ), 1081 – 1087 ( 2014 ).
  • Ellinger J , KahlP , Von Der GathenJet al. Global levels of histone modifications predict prostate cancer recurrence . Prostate70 ( 1 ), 61 – 69 ( 2010 ).
  • Durand X , XylinasE , RadulescuCet al. The value of urinary prostate cancer gene 3 (PCA3) scores in predicting pathological features at radical prostatectomy . BJU Int.110 ( 1 ), 43 – 49 ( 2012 ).
  • Kuner R , BraseJC , SultmannH , WuttigD . microRNA biomarkers in body fluids of prostate cancer patients . Methods59 ( 1 ), 132 – 137 ( 2013 ).
  • Schaefer A , JungM , MollenkopfHJet al. Diagnostic and prognostic implications of microRNA profiling in prostate carcinoma . Int. J. Cancer126 ( 5 ), 1166 – 1176 ( 2010 ).
  • Leite KR , TomiyamaA , ReisSTet al. MicroRNA-100 expression is independently related to biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer . J. Urol.185 ( 3 ), 1118 – 1122 ( 2011 ).
  • Spahn M , KneitzS , ScholzCJet al. Expression of microRNA-221 is progressively reduced in aggressive prostate cancer and metastasis and predicts clinical recurrence . Int. J. Cancer127 ( 2 ), 394 – 403 ( 2010 ).
  • Li J , FanQH , FanXS , ZhouW , QiuY , QiuL . EZH2 expression in human prostate cancer and its clinicopathologic significance . Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue16 ( 2 ), 123 – 128 ( 2010 ).
  • Rhodes DR , SandaMG , OtteAP , ChinnaiyanAM , RubinMA . Multiplex biomarker approach for determining risk of prostate-specific antigen-defined recurrence of prostate cancer . J. Natl Cancer Inst.95 ( 9 ), 661 – 668 ( 2003 ).
  • Vieira FQ , Costa-PinheiroP , Ramalho-CarvalhoJet al. Deregulated expression of selected histone methylases and demethylases in prostate carcinoma . Endocr. Relat. Cancer21 ( 1 ), 51 – 61 ( 2014 ).
  • Bastian PJ , PalapattuGS , LinXet al. Preoperative serum DNA GSTP1 CpG island hypermethylation and the risk of early prostate-specific antigen recurrence following radical prostatectomy . Clin. Cancer Res.11 ( 11 ), 4037 – 4043 ( 2005 ).
  • Woodson K , O’ReillyKJ , WardDEet al. CD44 and PTGS2 methylation are independent prognostic markers for biochemical recurrence among prostate cancer patients with clinically localized disease . Epigenetics1 ( 4 ), 183 – 186 ( 2006 ).
  • Weiss G , CottrellS , DistlerJet al. DNA methylation of the PITX2 gene promoter region is a strong independent prognostic marker of biochemical recurrence in patients with prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy . J. Urol.181 ( 4 ), 1678 – 1685 ( 2009 ).
  • Henrique R , RibeiroFR , FonsecaDet al. High promoter methylation levels of APC predict poor prognosis in sextant biopsies from prostate cancer patients . Clin. Cancer Res.13 ( 20 ), 6122 – 6129 ( 2007 ).
  • Oliveira AI , JeronimoC , HenriqueR . Moving forward in bladder cancer detection and diagnosis: the role of epigenetic biomarkers . Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn.12 ( 8 ), 871 – 878 ( 2012 ).
  • Costa VL , HenriqueR , DanielsenSAet al. Three epigenetic biomarkers, GDF15, TMEFF2, and VIM, accurately predict bladder cancer from DNA-based analyses of urine samples . Clin. Cancer Res.16 ( 23 ), 5842 – 5851 ( 2010 ).
  • Ellinger J , BachmannA , GokeFet al. Alterations of global histone H3K9 and H3K27 methylation levels in bladder cancer . Urol. Int.93 ( 1 ), 113 – 118 ( 2014 ).
  • Zhang DZ , LauKM , ChanESet al. Cell-free urinary microRNA-99a and microRNA-125b are diagnostic markers for the non-invasive screening of bladder cancer . PLoS ONE9 ( 7 ), e100793 ( 2014 ).
  • Wang H , AlbadineR , MagheliAet al. Increased EZH2 protein expression is associated with invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder . Urol. Oncol.30 ( 4 ), 428 – 433 ( 2012 ).
  • Santos M , Martinez-FernandezM , DuenasMet al. In vivo disruption of an Rb-E2F-Ezh2 signaling loop causes bladder cancer . Cancer Res.74 ( 22 ), 6565 – 6577 ( 2014 ).
  • Maher ER . Genomics and epigenomics of renal cell carcinoma . Semin. Cancer Biol.23 ( 1 ), 10 – 17 ( 2013 ).
  • Moch H . An overview of renal cell cancer: pathology and genetics . Semin. Cancer Biol.23 ( 1 ), 3 – 9 ( 2013 ).
  • Costa VL , HenriqueR , RibeiroFRet al. Quantitative promoter methylation analysis of multiple cancer-related genes in renal cell tumors . BMC Cancer7 , 133 ( 2007 ).
  • Silva-Santos RM , Costa-PinheiroP , LuisAet al. MicroRNA profile: a promising ancillary tool for accurate renal cell tumour diagnosis . Br. J. Cancer109 ( 10 ), 2646 – 2653 ( 2013 ).
  • Urakami S , ShiinaH , EnokidaHet al. Wnt antagonist family genes as biomarkers for diagnosis, staging, and prognosis of renal cell carcinoma using tumor and serum DNA . Clin. Cancer Res.12 ( 23 ), 6989 – 6997 ( 2006 ).
  • Peters I , RehmetK , WilkeNet al. RASSF1A promoter methylation and expression analysis in normal and neoplastic kidney indicates a role in early tumorigenesis . Mol. Cancer6 , 49 ( 2007 ).
  • Seligson DB , HorvathS , McbrianMAet al. Global levels of histone modifications predict prognosis in different cancers . Am. J. Pathol.174 ( 5 ), 1619 – 1628 ( 2009 ).
  • Mosashvilli D , KahlP , MertensCet al. Global histone acetylation levels: prognostic relevance in patients with renal cell carcinoma . Cancer Sci.101 ( 12 ), 2664 – 2669 ( 2010 ).
  • Ellinger J , KahlP , MertensCet al. Prognostic relevance of global histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) methylation in renal cell carcinoma . Int. J. Cancer127 ( 10 ), 2360 – 2366 ( 2010 ).
  • CAGEKID . www.cng.fr/cagekid/ .
  • EuroTARGET . www.eurotargetproject.eu/main.asp?VID=1&kat1=10&kat2=157&kat3= .
  • Cancer Network . Recurrence score validated in clear cell RCC . www.cancernetwork.com/renal-cell-carcinoma/recurrence-score-validated-clear-cell-rcc .
  • PREDICT Consortium . www.predictconsortium.eu .
  • Vasudev NS , SelbyPJ , BanksRE . Renal cancer biomarkers: the promise of personalized care . BMC Med.10 , 112 ( 2012 ).
  • Ganti AK , MulshineJL . Lung cancer screening: panacea or pipe dream?Ann. Oncol.16 ( Suppl. 2 ), ii215 – ii219 ( 2005 ).
  • Belinsky SA , NikulaKJ , PalmisanoWAet al. Aberrant methylation of p16(INK4a) is an early event in lung cancer and a potential biomarker for early diagnosis . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA95 ( 20 ), 11891 – 11896 ( 1998 ).
  • Topaloglu O , HoqueMO , TokumaruYet al. Detection of promoter hypermethylation of multiple genes in the tumor and bronchoalveolar lavage of patients with lung cancer . Clin. Cancer Res.10 ( 7 ), 2284 – 2288 ( 2004 ).
  • Van Der Drift MA , PrinsenCF , KnuimanGJ , JanssenJP , DekhuijzenPN , ThunnissenFB . Diagnosing peripheral lung cancer: the additional value of the Ras-association domain family 1A gene methylation and Kirsten rat sarcoma 2 viral oncogene homolog mutation analyses in washings in nondiagnostic bronchoscopy . Chest141 ( 1 ), 169 – 175 ( 2012 ).
  • Kneip C , SchmidtB , SeegebarthAet al. SHOX2 DNA methylation is a biomarker for the diagnosis of lung cancer in plasma . J. Thorac. Oncol.6 ( 10 ), 1632 – 1638 ( 2011 ).
  • Ilse P , BiesterfeldS , PomjanskiN , WrobelC , SchrammM . Analysis of SHOX2 methylation as an aid to cytology in lung cancer diagnosis . Cancer Genomics Proteomics11 ( 5 ), 251 – 258 ( 2014 ).
  • Usadel H , BrabenderJ , DanenbergKDet al. Quantitative adenomatous polyposis coli promoter methylation analysis in tumor tissue, serum, and plasma DNA of patients with lung cancer . Cancer Res.62 ( 2 ), 371 – 375 ( 2002 ).
  • Walter K , HolcombT , JanuarioTet al. Discovery and development of DNA methylation-based biomarkers for lung cancer . Epigenomics6 ( 1 ), 59 – 72 ( 2014 ).
  • Xing L , ToddNW , YuL , FangH , JiangF . Early detection of squamous cell lung cancer in sputum by a panel of microRNA markers . Mod. Pathol.23 ( 8 ), 1157 – 1164 ( 2010 ).
  • Yu L , ToddNW , XingLet al. Early detection of lung adenocarcinoma in sputum by a panel of microRNA markers . Int. J. Cancer127 ( 12 ), 2870 – 2878 ( 2010 ).
  • Gilad S , Lithwick-YanaiG , BarshackIet al. Classification of the four main types of lung cancer using a microRNA-based diagnostic assay . J. Mol. Diagn.14 ( 5 ), 510 – 517 ( 2012 ).
  • Van Den Broeck A , BrambillaE , Moro-SibilotDet al. Loss of histone H4K20 trimethylation occurs in preneoplasia and influences prognosis of non-small cell lung cancer . Clin. Cancer Res.14 ( 22 ), 7237 – 7245 ( 2008 ).
  • Brock MV , HookerCM , Ota-MachidaEet al. DNA methylation markers and early recurrence in stage I lung cancer . N. Engl. J. Med.358 ( 11 ), 1118 – 1128 ( 2008 ).
  • Zhang Y , WangR , SongHet al. Methylation of multiple genes as a candidate biomarker in non-small cell lung cancer . Cancer Lett.303 ( 1 ), 21 – 28 ( 2011 ).
  • Cai J , WuJ , ZhangHet al. miR-186 downregulation correlates with poor survival in lung adenocarcinoma, where it interferes with cell-cycle regulation . Cancer Res.73 ( 2 ), 756 – 766 ( 2013 ).
  • Cao J , SongY , BiNet al. DNA methylation-mediated repression of miR-886-3p predicts poor outcome of human small cell lung cancer . Cancer Res.73 ( 11 ), 3326 – 3335 ( 2013 ).
  • Bi N , CaoJ , SongYet al. A microRNA signature predicts survival in early stage small-cell lung cancer treated with surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy . PLoS ONE9 ( 3 ), e91388 ( 2014 ).
  • Li M , ZhangQ , WuLet al. Serum miR-499 as a novel diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in non-small cell lung cancer . Oncol. Rep.31 ( 4 ), 1961 – 1967 ( 2014 ).
  • Landi MT , ZhaoY , RotunnoMet al. MicroRNA expression differentiates histology and predicts survival of lung cancer . Clin. Cancer Res.16 ( 2 ), 430 – 441 ( 2010 ).
  • Patnaik SK , KannistoE , KnudsenS , YendamuriS . Evaluation of microRNA expression profiles that may predict recurrence of localized stage I non-small cell lung cancer after surgical resection . Cancer Res.70 ( 1 ), 36 – 45 ( 2010 ).
  • Bartling B , HofmannHS , BoettgerTet al. Comparative application of antibody and gene array for expression profiling in human squamous cell lung carcinoma . Lung Cancer49 ( 2 ), 145 – 154 ( 2005 ).
  • Minamiya Y , OnoT , SaitoHet al. Expression of histone deacetylase 1 correlates with a poor prognosis in patients with adenocarcinoma of the lung . Lung Cancer74 ( 2 ), 300 – 304 ( 2011 ).
  • Matthaios D , HountisP , KarakitsosP , BourosD , KakolyrisS . H2AX a promising biomarker for lung cancer: a review . Cancer Invest.31 ( 9 ), 582 – 599 ( 2013 ).
  • Esteller M , SilvaJM , DominguezGet al. Promoter hypermethylation and BRCA1 inactivation in sporadic breast and ovarian tumors . J. Natl Cancer Inst.92 ( 7 ), 564 – 569 ( 2000 ).
  • Birgisdottir V , StefanssonOA , BodvarsdottirSK , HilmarsdottirH , JonassonJG , EyfjordJE . Epigenetic silencing and deletion of the BRCA1 gene in sporadic breast cancer . Breast Cancer Res.8 ( 4 ), R38 ( 2006 ).
  • Lo PK , SukumarS . Epigenomics and breast cancer . Pharmacogenomics9 ( 12 ), 1879 – 1902 ( 2008 ).
  • Muggerud AA , RonnebergJA , WarnbergFet al. Frequent aberrant DNA methylation of ABCB1, FOXC1, PPP2R2B and PTEN in ductal carcinoma in situ and early invasive breast cancer . Breast Cancer Res.12 ( 1 ), R3 ( 2010 ).
  • Karsli-Ceppioglu S , DagdemirA , JudesGet al. Epigenetic mechanisms of breast cancer: an update of the current knowledge . Epigenomics6 ( 6 ), 651 – 664 ( 2014 ).
  • Jeronimo C , MonteiroP , HenriqueRet al. Quantitative hypermethylation of a small panel of genes augments the diagnostic accuracy in fine-needle aspirate washings of breast lesions . Breast Cancer Res. Treat.109 ( 1 ), 27 – 34 ( 2008 ).
  • Melnikov AA , ScholtensDM , WileyEL , KhanSA , LevensonVV . Array-based multiplex analysis of DNA methylation in breast cancer tissues . J. Mol. Diagn.10 ( 1 ), 93 – 101 ( 2008 ).
  • Fox BP , KandpalRP . DNA-based assay for EPHB6 expression in breast carcinoma cells as a potential diagnostic test for detecting tumor cells in circulation . Cancer Genom. Proteomics7 ( 1 ), 9 – 16 ( 2010 ).
  • Xu Z , BolickSC , DerooLA , WeinbergCR , SandlerDP , TaylorJA . Epigenome-wide association study of breast cancer using prospectively collected sister study samples . J. Natl Cancer Inst.105 ( 10 ), 694 – 700 ( 2013 ).
  • Severi G , SoutheyMC , EnglishDRet al. Epigenome-wide methylation in DNA from peripheral blood as a marker of risk for breast cancer . Breast Cancer Res. Treat.148 ( 3 ), 665 – 673 ( 2014 ).
  • The sister study . A study of the environmental and genetic risk factors for breast cancer . http://sisterstudy.niehs.nih.gov/English/index1.htm .
  • Godfrey AC , XuZ , WeinbergCRet al. Serum microRNA expression as an early marker for breast cancer risk in prospectively collected samples from the Sister Study cohort . Breast Cancer Res.15 ( 3 ), R42 ( 2013 ).
  • Hu Z , DongJ , WangLEet al. Serum microRNA profiling and breast cancer risk: the use of miR-484/191 as endogenous controls . Carcinogenesis33 ( 4 ), 828 – 834 ( 2012 ).
  • Wu Q , WangC , LuZ , GuoL , GeQ . Analysis of serum genome-wide microRNAs for breast cancer detection . Clin. Chim. Acta413 ( 13–14 ), 1058 – 1065 ( 2012 ).
  • Kodahl AR , ZeuthenP , BinderH , KnoopAS , DitzelHJ . Alterations in circulating miRNA levels following early-stage estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer resection in post-menopausal women . PLoS ONE9 ( 7 ), e101950 ( 2014 ).
  • Dalvai M , BystrickyK . The role of histone modifications and variants in regulating gene expression in breast cancer . J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia15 ( 1 ), 19 – 33 ( 2010 ).
  • Stefansson OA , EstellerM . Epigenetic modifications in breast cancer and their role in personalized medicine . Am. J. Pathol.183 ( 4 ), 1052 – 1063 ( 2013 ).
  • Muller HM , WidschwendterA , FieglHet al. DNA methylation in serum of breast cancer patients: an independent prognostic marker . Cancer Res.63 ( 22 ), 7641 – 7645 ( 2003 ).
  • Martins AT , MonteiroP , Ramalho-CarvalhoJet al. High RASSF1A promoter methylation levels are predictive of poor prognosis in fine-needle aspirate washings of breast cancer lesions . Breast Cancer Res. Treat.129 ( 1 ), 1 – 9 ( 2011 ).
  • Maier S , NimmrichI , KoenigTet al. DNA-methylation of the homeodomain transcription factor PITX2 reliably predicts risk of distant disease recurrence in tamoxifen-treated, node-negative breast cancer patients – technical and clinical validation in a multi-centre setting in collaboration with the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) PathoBiology group . Eur. J. Cancer43 ( 11 ), 1679 – 1686 ( 2007 ).
  • Goebel G , BergerR , StrasakAMet al. Elevated mRNA expression of CHAC1 splicing variants is associated with poor outcome for breast and ovarian cancer patients . Br. J. Cancer106 ( 1 ), 189 – 198 ( 2012 ).
  • Martens JW , NimmrichI , KoenigTet al. Association of DNA methylation of phosphoserine aminotransferase with response to endocrine therapy in patients with recurrent breast cancer . Cancer Res.65 ( 10 ), 4101 – 4117 ( 2005 ).
  • Gasparini P , CascioneL , FassanMet al. microRNA expression profiling identifies a four microRNA signature as a novel diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in triple negative breast cancers . Oncotarget5 ( 5 ), 1174 – 1184 ( 2014 ).
  • Marino AL , EvangelistaAF , VieiraRAet al. MicroRNA expression as risk biomarker of breast cancer metastasis: a pilot retrospective case–cohort study . BMC Cancer14 , 739 ( 2014 ).
  • Elsheikh SE , GreenAR , RakhaEAet al. Global histone modifications in breast cancer correlate with tumor phenotypes, prognostic factors, and patient outcome . Cancer Res.69 ( 9 ), 3802 – 3809 ( 2009 ).
  • Rangasamy D . Histone variant H2A.Z can serve as a new target for breast cancer therapy . Curr. Med. Chem.17 ( 28 ), 3155 – 3161 ( 2010 ).
  • Van Engeland M , DerksS , SmitsKM , MeijerGA , HermanJG . Colorectal cancer epigenetics: complex simplicity . J. Clin. Oncol.29 ( 10 ), 1382 – 1391 ( 2011 ).
  • Kim MS , LeeJ , SidranskyD . DNA methylation markers in colorectal cancer . Cancer Metastasis Rev.29 ( 1 ), 181 – 206 ( 2010 ).
  • Coppede F , LopomoA , SpisniR , MiglioreL . Genetic and epigenetic biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of colorectal cancer . World J. Gastroenterol.20 ( 4 ), 943 – 956 ( 2014 ).
  • Chen WD , HanZJ , SkoletskyJet al. Detection in fecal DNA of colon cancer-specific methylation of the nonexpressed vimentin gene . J. Natl Cancer Inst.97 ( 15 ), 1124 – 1132 ( 2005 ).
  • Grutzmann R , MolnarB , PilarskyCet al. Sensitive detection of colorectal cancer in peripheral blood by septin 9 DNA methylation assay . PLoS ONE3 ( 11 ), e3759 ( 2008 ).
  • Payne SR . From discovery to the clinic: the novel DNA methylation biomarker (m)SEPT9 for the detection of colorectal cancer in blood . Epigenomics2 ( 4 ), 575 – 585 ( 2010 ).
  • Summers T , LanganRC , NissanAet al. Serum-based DNA methylation biomarkers in colorectal cancer: potential for screening and early detection . J. Cancer4 ( 3 ), 210 – 216 ( 2013 ).
  • Church TR , WandellM , Lofton-DayCet al. Prospective evaluation of methylated SEPT9 in plasma for detection of asymptomatic colorectal cancer . Gut63 ( 2 ), 317 – 325 ( 2014 ).
  • Connolly D , YangZ , CastaldiMet al. Septin 9 isoform expression, localization and epigenetic changes during human and mouse breast cancer progression . Breast Cancer Res.13 ( 4 ), R76 ( 2011 ).
  • Imperiale TF , RansohoffDF , ItzkowitzSH . Multitarget stool DNA testing for colorectal-cancer screening . N. Engl. J. Med.371 ( 2 ), 187 – 188 ( 2014 ).
  • Baba Y , HuttenhowerC , NoshoKet al. Epigenomic diversity of colorectal cancer indicated by LINE-1 methylation in a database of 869 tumors . Mol. Cancer9 , 125 ( 2010 ).
  • Antelo M , BalaguerF , ShiaJet al. A high degree of LINE-1 hypomethylation is a unique feature of early-onset colorectal cancer . PLoS ONE7 ( 9 ), e45357 ( 2012 ).
  • Nilsson TK , Lof-OhlinZM , SunXF . DNA methylation of the p14ARF, RASSF1A and APC1A genes as an independent prognostic factor in colorectal cancer patients . Int. J. Oncol.42 ( 1 ), 127 – 133 ( 2013 ).
  • Nagasaka T , SharpGB , NotoharaKet al. Hypermethylation of O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase promoter may predict nonrecurrence after chemotherapy in colorectal cancer cases . Clin. Cancer Res.9 ( 14 ), 5306 – 5312 ( 2003 ).
  • Jensen LH , RasmussenAA , ByrielLet al. Regulation of MLH1 mRNA and protein expression by promoter methylation in primary colorectal cancer: a descriptive and prognostic cancer marker study . Cell Oncol. (Dordr)36 ( 5 ), 411 – 419 ( 2013 ).
  • Kamimae S , YamamotoE , YamanoHOet al. Epigenetic alteration of DNA in mucosal wash fluid predicts invasiveness of colorectal tumors . Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.)4 ( 5 ), 674 – 683 ( 2011 ).
  • Schetter AJ , LeungSY , SohnJJet al. MicroRNA expression profiles associated with prognosis and therapeutic outcome in colon adenocarcinoma . JAMA299 ( 4 ), 425 – 436 ( 2008 ).
  • Shibuya H , IinumaH , ShimadaR , HoriuchiA , WatanabeT . Clinicopathological and prognostic value of microRNA-21 and microRNA-155 in colorectal cancer . Oncology79 ( 3–4 ), 313 – 320 ( 2010 ).
  • Chang KH , MillerN , KheirelseidEAet al. MicroRNA-21 and PDCD4 expression in colorectal cancer . Eur. J. Surg. Oncol.37 ( 7 ), 597 – 603 ( 2011 ).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.