260
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Hepatitis E: Latest Developments in Knowledge

, , &
Pages 789-808 | Received 20 Jan 2016, Accepted 30 Mar 2016, Published online: 20 May 2016

References

  • WHO (2015). www.who.int
  • Arankalle VA, Tsarev SA, Chadha MS et al. Age-specific prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis A and E viruses in Pune, India, 1982 and 1992. J. Infect. Dis. 2 (171 ), 447 – 450 (1995).
  • Purcell RH, Emerson SU. Hepatitis E: an emerging awareness of an old disease. J. Hepatol. 48, 494 – 503 (2008).
  • Pérez-Gracia MT, Mateos ML, Galiana C et al. Autochthonous hepatitis E infection in a slaughterhouse worker. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 5 (77 ), 893 – 896 (2007).
  • Riveiro-Barciela M, Mínguez B, Gironés R, Rodriguez-Frías F, Quer J, Buti M. Phylogenetic demonstration of hepatitis E infection transmitted by pork meat ingestion. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 49 (2 ), 165 – 168 (2015).
  • Viswanathan R, Sidhu AS. Infectious hepatitis; clinical findings. Indian J. Med. Res. (Suppl. 45 ), 49 – 58 (1957).
  • Khuroo MS. Study of an epidemic of non-A, non-B hepatitis. Possibility of another human hepatitis virus distinct from post-transfusion non-A, non-B type. Am. J. Med. 6 (68 ), 818 – 824 (1980).
  • Balayan MS, Andjapardize AG, Savinskaya SS et al. Evidence for a virus in non-A, non-B hepatitis transmitted via faecal–oral route. Intervirology 20, 23 – 31 (1983).
  • Bradley D, Andjaparidze A, Cook EH et al. Aetiological agent of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis. J. Gen. Virol. 3, 731 – 738 (1988).
  • Krawczynski K, Bradley DW. Enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis: identification of virus-associated antigen in experimentally infected cynomolgus macaques. J. Infect. Dis. 6 (159 ), 1042 – 1049 (1989).
  • Reyes GR, Purdy MA, Kim JP et al. Isolation of a cDNA from the virus responsible for enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science 4948 (247 ), 1335 – 1339 (1990).
  • Balayan MS, Usmanov RK, Zamyatina NA, Djumalieva DI, Karas FR. Brief report: experimental hepatitis E infection in domestic pigs. J. Med. Virol. 1 (32 ), 58 – 59 (1990).
  • Schlauder GG, Dawson GJ, Erker JC et al. The sequence and phylogenetic analysis of a novel hepatitis E virus isolated from a patient with acute hepatitis reported in the United States. J. Gen. Virol. 79 (Pt 3 ), 447 – 456 (1998).
  • Zaaijer HL, Yin MF, Lelie PN. Seroprevalence of hepatitis E in The Netherlands. Lancet 8820 (340 ), 681 (1992).
  • Paul DA, Knigge MF, Ritter A et al. Determination of hepatitis E virus seroprevalence by using recombinant fusion proteins and synthetic peptides. J. Infect. Dis. 4 (169 ), 801 – 806 (1994).
  • Buti M, Jardi R, Cotrina M et al. Hepatitis E virus infection in acute hepatitis in Spain. J. Virol. Methods. 1 (55 ), 49 – 54 (1995).
  • Meng XJ, Dea S, Engle RE et al. Prevalence of antibodies to the hepatitis E virus in pigs from countries where hepatitis E is common or is rare in the human population. J. Med. Virol. 3 (59 ), 297 – 302 (1999).
  • Fernández-Barredo S, Galiana C, García A, Vega S, Gómez MT, Pérez-Gracia MT. Detection of hepatitis E virus shedding in feces of pigs at different stages of production using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 5 (18 ), 462 – 465 (2006).
  • Banks M, Bendall R, Grierson S, Heath G, Mitchell J, Dalton H. Human and porcine hepatitis E virus strains, United Kingdom. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5 (10 ), 953 – 955 (2004).
  • Huang FF, Haqshenas G, Guenette DK et al. Detection by reverse transcription-PCR and genetic characterization of field isolates of swine hepatitis E virus from pigs in different geographic regions of the United States. J. Clin. Microbiol. 4 (40 ), 1326 – 1332 (2002).
  • He J, Innis BL, Shrestha MP et al. Evidence that rodents are a reservoir of hepatitis E virus for humans in Nepal. J. Clin. Microbiol. 12 (40 ), 4493 – 4498 (2002).
  • Meng XJ, Purcell RH, Halbur PG et al. A novel virus in swine is closely related to the human hepatitis E virus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 18 (94 ), 9860 – 9865 (1997).
  • Pérez-Gracia MT, García M, Suay B, Mateos-Lindemann ML. Current knowledge on Hepatitis E. J. Clin. Transl Hepatol. 3 (2 ), 117 – 126 (2015).
  • Li TC, Yamakawa Y, Suzuki K et al. Expression and self-assembly of empty virus-like particles of hepatitis E virus. J. Virol. 71, 7207 – 7213 (1997).
  • Tam AW, Smith MM, Guerra ME et al. Hepatitis E virus (HEV): molecular cloning and sequencing of the full-length viral genome. Virology 185, 120 – 131 (1991).
  • Parvez MK, Al-Dosari MS. Evidence of MAPK-JNK1/2 activation by hepatitis E virus ORF3 protein in cultured hepatoma cells. Cytotechnology 67 (3 ), 545 – 550 (2015).
  • Khudyakov YE, Favorov MO, Khudyakova NS et al. Artificial mosaic protein containing antigenic epitopes of hepatitis E virus. J. Virol. 68, 7067 – 7074 (1994).
  • Schlauder GG, Mushahwar IK. Genetic heterogeneity of hepatitis E virus. J. Med. Virol. 2 (65 ), 282 – 292 (2001).
  • Lu L, Li C, Hagedorn CH. Phylogenetic analysis of global hepatitis E virus sequences: genetic diversity, subtypes and zoonosis. Rev. Med. Virol. 16, 5 – 36 (2006).
  • Smith DB, Simmonds P, International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses Hepeviridae Study Group et al. Consensus proposals for classification of the family Hepeviridae. J. Gen. Virol. 95 (Pt 10 ), 2223 – 2232 (2014).
  • Smith DB, Purdy MA, Simmonds P. Genetic variability and the classification of hepatitis E virus. J. Virol. 87 (8 ), 4161 – 4169 (2013).
  • Woo PC, Lau SK, Teng JL et al. New hepatitis E virus genotype in camels, the Middle East. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 20 (6 ), 1044 – 1048 (2014).
  • Pérez-Gracia MT, Suay B, Mateos-Lindemann ML. Hepatitis E: an emerging disease. Infect. Genet. Evol. 22, 40 – 59 (2014).
  • Guan D, Li W, Su J. Asian musk shrew as a reservoir of rat hepatitis E virus, China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19 (8 ), 1341 – 1343 (2013).
  • Batts W, Yun S, Hedrick R, Winton J. A novel member of the family Hepeviridae from cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii). Virus Res. 158, 116 – 123 (2011).
  • Takahashi M, Tanaka T, Takahashi H et al. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) strains in serum samples can replicate efficiently in cultured cells despite the coexistence of HEV antibodies: characterization of HEV virions in blood circulation. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48, 1112 – 1125 (2010).
  • Tanaka T, Takahashi M, Kusano E, Okamoto H. Development and evaluation of an efficient cell-culture system for Hepatitis E virus. J. Gen. Virol. 88, 903 – 911 (2007).
  • Tanaka T, Takahashi M, Takahashi H et al. Development and characterization of a genotype 4 hepatitis E virus cell culture system using a HE-JF5/15F strain recovered from a fulminant hepatitis patient. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47, 1906 – 1910 (2009).
  • Williams TP, Kasorndorkbua C, Halbur PG et al. Evidence of extrahepatic sites of replication of the hepatitis E virus in a swine model. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39, 3040 – 3046 (2001).
  • Shukla P, H.T Nguyen, K Faulk et al. Adaptation of a genotype 3 hepatitis E virus to efficient growth in cell culture depends on an inserted human gene segment acquired by recombination. J. Virol. 86, 5697 – 5707 (2012).
  • Rogee S, Talbot N, Caperna T et al. New models of hepatitis E virus replication in human and porcine hepatocyte cell lines. J. Gen. Virol. 94, 549 – 558 (2013).
  • Oshiro Y, Yasue H, Takahashi K et al. Mode of swine hepatitis E virus infection and replication in primary human hepatocytes. J. Gen. Virol. 95, 2677 – 2682 (2014).
  • Emerson SU, Nguyen HT, Torian U, Burke D, Engle R, Purcell RH. Release of Genotype 1 hepatitis E Virus from cultured hepatoma and polarized intestinal cells depends on open reading frame 3 protein and requires an intact PXXP motif. J. Virol. 84 (18 ), 9059 – 9069 (2010).
  • Okamoto H. Efficient cell culture systems for hepatitis E virus strains in feces and circulating blood. Rev. Med. Virol. 21, 18 – 31 (2011).
  • Shukla P, Nguyen HT, Torian U et al. Cross-species infections of cultured cells by hepatitis E virus and discovery of an infectious virus-host recombinant. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 2438 – 2443 (2011).
  • Zhang HY, Chen DS, Wu YQ et al. Both swine and human cells are capable to support the replication of swine hepatitis E virus type 4 in vitro. Virus Res. 158, 289 – 293 (2011).
  • Ahmad I, Holla RP, Jameel S. Molecular virology of hepatitis E virus. Virus Res. 161, 47 – 58 (2011).
  • Shiota T, Li TC, Yoshizaki S et al. The hepatitis E virus capsid C-terminal region is essential for the viral life cycle: implication for viral genome encapsidation and particle stabilization. J. Virol. 87, 6031 – 6036 (2013).
  • Kalia M, Chandra V, Rahman SA, Sehgal D, Jameel S. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are required for cellular binding of the hepatitis E virus ORF2 capsid protein and for viral infection. J. Virol. 83, 12714 – 12724 (2009).
  • Holla P, Ahmad I, Ahmed Z, Jameel S. Hepatitis e virus enters liver cells through a dynamin-2, clathrin and membrane cholesterol-dependent pathway. Traffic 16, 398 – 416 (2015).
  • Helenius A. Virus entry: what has pH got to do with it? Nat. Cell Biol. 15, 125 (2013).
  • Yamauchi Y, Helenius A. Virus entry at a glance. J. Cell Sci. 126, 1289 – 1295 (2013).
  • Yu H, Li S, Yang C, Wei M et al. Homology model and potential virus-capsid binding site of a putative HEV receptor Grp78. J. Mol. Model. 17, 987 – 995 (2011).
  • Zheng ZZ, Miao J, Zhao M et al. Role of heat-shock protein 90 in hepatitis E virus capsid trafficking. J. Gen. Virol. 91, 1728 – 1736 (2010).
  • Perttila J, Spuul P, Ahola T. Early secretory pathway localization and lack of processing for hepatitis E virus replication protein pORF1. J. Gen. Virol. 94, 807 – 816 (2013).
  • Agrawal S, Gupta D, Panda SK. The 3′ end of hepatitis E virus (HEV) genome binds specifically to the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). Virology 282, 87 – 101 (2001).
  • Graff J, Nguyen H, Kasorndorkbua C et al. In vitro and in vivo mutational analysis of the 3′-terminal regions of hepatitis E virus genomes and replicons. J. Virol. 79, 1017 – 1026 (2005).
  • Parvez MK. The hepatitis E virus ORF1 'X-domain' residues form a putative macrodomain protein/Appr-1′′-pase catalytic-site, critical for viral RNA replication. Gene 566 (1 ), 47 – 53 (2015).
  • Emerson SU, Nguyen HT, Torian U et al. Release of genotype 1 hepatitis E virus from cultured hepatoma and polarized intestinal cells depends on open reading frame 3 protein and requires an intact PXXP motif. J. Virol. 84, 9059 – 9069 (2010).
  • Nagashima S, Takahashi M, Jirintai et al. A PSAP motif in the ORF3 protein of hepatitis E virus is necessary for virion release from infected cells. J. Gen. Virol. 92, 269 – 278 (2011).
  • Surjit M, Oberoi R, Kumar R, Lal SK. Enhanced alpha1 microglobulin secretion from hepatitis E virus ORF3-expressing human hepatoma cells is mediated by the tumor susceptibility gene 101. J. Biol. Chem. 281, 8135 – 8142 (2006).
  • Jia Z, Yi Y, Liu J et al. Epidemiology of hepatitis E virus in China: results from the Third National Viral Hepatitis Prevalence Survey, 2005–2006. PLoS ONE 9 (10 ), e110837 (2014).
  • Kamar N, Bendall R, Legrand-Abravanel F et al. Hepatitis E. Lancet 379, 2477 – 2488 (2012).
  • Kumar S, Subhadra S, Singh B, Panda BK. Hepatitis E: the current scenario. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 17 (4 ), e228 – e233 (2013).
  • Kmush B, Wierzba T, Krain L, Nelson K, Labrique AB. Epidemiology of hepatitis E in low- and middle-income countries of Asia and Africa. Semin. Liver Dis. 33, 15 – 29 (2013).
  • CIWEC Clinic Travel Medicine Center. www.ciwec-clinic.com
  • Kim JH, Nelson KE, Panzner U et al. A systematic review of the epidemiology of hepatitis E virus in Africa. BMC Infect Dis. 14, 308 (2014).
  • Aggarwal R. The global prevalence of hepatitis E virus infection and susceptibility: a systematic review. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (2010).
  • Browne LB, Menkir Z, Kahi V et al. Notes from the field: hepatitis E outbreak among refugees from South Sudan – Gambella, Ethiopia, April 2014–January 2015. MMRW Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 64 (19 ), 537 (2015).
  • Ahmed JA, Moturi E, Spiegel P et al. Hepatitis E outbreak, Dadaab refugee camp, Kenya, 2012. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19 (6 ), 1010 – 1012 (2013).
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Investigation of hepatitis E outbreak among refugees – Upper Nile, South Sudan, 2012–2013. MMRW Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 62 (29 ), 581 – 586 (2013).
  • Teshale EH, Grytdal SP, Howard C et al. Evidence of person-to-person transmission of hepatitis E virus during a large outbreak in Northern Uganda. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50 (7 ), 1006 – 1010 (2010).
  • Villarejos VM, Provost PJ, Ittensohn OL, McLean AA, Hilleman MR. Seroepidemiologic investigation of human hepatitis caused by A, B and a possible third virus. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 152 (4 ), 524 – 528 (1976).
  • Zhuang H, Cao XY, Liu CB, Wang GM. Epidemiology of hepatitis E in China. Gastroenterol Jpn 26 (Suppl. 3 ), 135 – 138 (1991).
  • Arankalle VA, Chadha MS, Tsarev SA et al. Seroepidemiology of water-borne hepatitis in India and evidence of third enterically-transmitted hepatitis agent. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91 (8 ), 3428 – 3432 (1994).
  • Hepatitis D, E and GB-C: Global Status. Gideon e-books. (2016). www.gideononline.com/ebooks/disease/hepatitis-d-e-and-g-global-status
  • Corwin AL, Khiem HB, Clayson ET et al. A waterborne outbreak of hepatitis E virus transmission in southwestern Vietnam. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 54 (6 ), 559 – 562 (1996).
  • Dawson GJ, Mushahwar IK, Chau KH, Gitnick GL. Detection of long-lasting antibody to hepatitis E virus in a US traveller to Pakistan. Lancet 240, 426 – 427 (1992).
  • Chapman BA, Burt MJ, Wilkinson ID, Schousboe MI. Community acquired viral hepatitis in New Zealand: a case of sporadic hepatitis E virus infection. Aust. NZ J. Med. 23, 722 – 723 (1993).
  • Fletcher J. A traveller returning from Nepal with hepatitis E. Med. J. Aust. 159, 563 (1993).
  • Acharya SK, Panda SK. Hepatitis E: water, water everywhere – now a global disease. J. Hepatol. 54, 9 – 11 (2011).
  • García M, Fernández-Barredo S, Pérez-Gracia MT. Detection of hepatitis E virus (HEV) through the different stages of pig manure composting plants. Microb. Biotechnol. 7 (1 ), 26 – 31 (2013).
  • Aggarwal R, Kini D, Sofat S, Naik SR, Krawczynski K. Duration of viraemia and faecal viral excretion in acute hepatitis E. Lancet 356, 1081 – 1082 (2000).
  • Khuroo MS, Kamili S. Clinical course and duration of viremia in vertically transmitted hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in babies born to HEV-infected mothers. J. Viral Hepat. 16, 519 – 523 (2009).
  • Kumar RM, Uduman S, Rana S, Kochiyil JK, Usmani A, Tomas L. Sero-prevalence and mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis E virus among pregnant women in the United Arab Emirates. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 100, 9 – 15 (2001).
  • Khuroo MS, Kamili S, Jameel S. Vertical transmission of hepatitis E virus. Lancet 345, 1025 – 1026 (1995).
  • Psichogiou M, Tzala E, Boletis J et al. Hepatitis E virus infection in individuals at high risk of transmission of non-A, non-B hepatitis and sexually transmitted diseases. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 28, 443 – 445 (1996).
  • Galiana C, Fernández-Barredo S, Pérez-Gracia MT. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) and risk factors in pig workers and blood donors. Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin. 28, 602 – 607 (2010).
  • Mansuy JM, Bendall R, Legrand-Abravanel F et al. Hepatitis E virus antibodies in blood donors, France. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17, 2309 – 2323 (2011).
  • Wichmann O, Schimanski S, Koch J et al. Phylogenetic and case–control study on hepatitis E virus infection in Germany. J. Infect. Dis. 198, 1732 – 1741 (2008).
  • Said B, Ijaz S, Kafatos G et al. Hepatitis E outbreak on cruise ship. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 15, 1738 – 1744 (2009).
  • Echevarría JM. Light and darkness: prevalence of hepatitis E virus infection among the general population. Scientifica (Cairo) 2014, 481016 (2014).
  • Matsubayashi K, Nagaoka Y, Sakata H et al. Transfusion-transmitted hepatitis E caused by apparently indigenous hepatitis E virus strain in Hokkaido, Japan. Transfusion 44 (6 ), 934 – 940 (2004).
  • Boxall E, Herborn A, Kochethu G et al. Transfusion-transmitted hepatitis E in a 'nonhyperendemic' country. Transfus. Med. 16 (2 ), 79 – 83 (2006).
  • Colson P, Coze C, Gallian P, Henry M, De Micco P, Tamalet C. Transfusion-associated hepatitis E, France. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13 (4 ), 648 – 649 (2007).
  • Mirazo S, Ramos N, Mainardi V, Gerona S, Arbiza J. Transmission, diagnosis and management of hepatitis E: an update. Hepat. Med. 6, 45 – 59 (2014).
  • Mateos-Lindemann ML, Diez-Aguilar M, González-Galdamez A, Graus-Morales J, Moreno-Zamora A, Pérez-Gracia MT. Acute, chronic and fulminant hepatitis E: seven years of experience (2004–2011). Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin. 31, 595 – 598 (2013).
  • Mateos-Lindemann ML, Diez-Aguilar M, González-Galdámez A et al. Acute, chronic and fulminant hepatitis E: ten years of experience (2004–2013). Int. J. Gastroenterol. Dis. Ther. 1, 102 – 105 (2014).
  • Labrique AB, Kuniholm MH, Nelson K. The global impact of hepatitis E: new horizons for an emerging virus. In : Emerging Infections (9th Edition). Scheld WM, Grayson ML, Hughes JM( Eds ) . ASM Press, VA, USA, 53 – 92 (2010).
  • Aggarwal R. Hepatitis E: clinical presentation in disease-endemic areas and diagnosis. Semin. Liver Dis. 33, 30 – 40 (2013).
  • Dalton HR, Bendall RP, Rashid M et al. Host risk factors and autochthonous hepatitis E infection. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 23, 1200 – 1205 (2011).
  • Navaneethan U, Al Mohajer M, Shata MT. Hepatitis E and pregnancy: understanding the pathogenesis. Liver Int. 28, 1190 – 1199 (2008).
  • Davern TJ, Chalasami N, Fontana RJ et al. Acute hepatitis E infection accounts for some cases of suspected drug-induced liver injury. Gastroenterology 41, 1665 – 1672 (2011).
  • Peron JM, Dalton H, Izopet J, Kamar N. Acute autochthonous hepatitis E in western patients with underlying chronic liver disease: a role for ribavirin? J. Hepatol. 54, 1323 – 1324, author reply 1324 – 1325 (2011).
  • Kamar N, Rostaing L, Legrand-Abravanet F, Izopet J. How should hepatitis E virus infection be defined in organ-transplant recipients? Am. J. Transplant. 13, 1935 – 1936 (2013).
  • Kamar N, Abravanel F, Lhomme S, Rostaing L, Izopet J. Hepatitis E virus: chronic infection, extra-hepatic manifestations, and treatment. Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol. 39, 20 – 27 (2015).
  • González-Tallón AI, Moreira Vicente V, Mateos Lindemann ML. Hepatitis crónica E en paciente immunocompetente. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 34, 398 – 400 (2011).
  • Grewal P, Kamili S, Motamed D. Chronic hepatitis E in an immunocompetent patient: a case report. Hepatology 59, 347 – 348 (2013).
  • Junge N, Pischke S, Baumann U et al. Results of single-center liver transplantation and report on successful treatment with ribavirin. Pediatr. Transplant. 17, 343 – 347 (2013).
  • Kamar N, Rostaing L, Izopet J. Hepatitis E virus infection in immunosuppressed patients: natural history and therapy. Semin. Liver Dis. 33, 62 – 70 (2013).
  • Geng Y, Zhang H, Huang W, Geng K, Li Z. Persistent hepatitis E virus genotype 4 infection in a child with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Hepat. Mon. 14, e15618 (2014).
  • Kamar N, Selves J, Mansuy JM et al. Hepatitis E virus and chronic hepatitis in organ-transplant recipients. N. Engl. J. Med. 358, 811 – 817 (2008).
  • Kamar N, Izopet J, Cintas P et al. Hepatitis E virus induced-neurological symptoms in a kidney-transplant patient with chronic hepatitis. Am. J. Transplant. 10, 1321 – 1324 (2010).
  • Kamar N, Abravanel F, Selves J et al. Influence of immunosuppressive therapy on the natural history of genotype 3 hepatitis E virus infection after organ transplantation. Transplantation 89, 353 – 360 (2010).
  • Halac U, Beland K, Lapierre P et al. Chronic hepatitis E infection in children with liver transplantation. Gut 61, 597 – 603 (2010).
  • Versluis J, Pas SD, Agteresch HJ et al. Hepatitis E virus: an underestimated opportunistic pathogen in recipients of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Blood 122, 1079 – 1086 (2013).
  • le Coutre P, Meisel H, Hofmann J et al. Reactivation of hepatitis E infection in a patient with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Gut. 58, 699 – 702 (2009).
  • Haagsma E, van den Berg AP, Porte R et al. Chronic hepatitis E virus infection in liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl. 14, 547 – 553 (2008).
  • Schlosser B, Stein A, Neuhaus R et al. Transplant from a donor with occult HEV infection induced chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis in the recipient. J. Hepatol. 56, 500 – 502 (2012).
  • Hewitt EP, Ijaz S, Brailsford SR et al. Hepatitis E virus in blood components: a prevalence and transmission study in southeast England. Lancet 384, 1766 – 1773 (2014).
  • Dalton HR, Bendall RP, Keane FE, Tender RS, Ijaz S. Persistent carriage of hepatitis E virus in patients with HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 1025 – 1027 (2009).
  • Kenfak-Foguena A, Schoni-Affolter F, Bürgisser P et al. Hepatitis E seroprevalence and chronic infections in patients with HIV, Switzerland. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17, 1074 – 1078 (2011).
  • Mateos Lindemann ML, Diez-Aguilar M, Gonzalez Galdamez AL et al. Patients infected with HIV are at high-risk for hepatitis E virus infection in Spain. J. Med. Virol. 86, 71 – 74 (2014).
  • Dalton HR, Bendall RP, Keane FE, Tedder RS, Ijaz S. Persistent carriage of hepatitis E virus in patients with HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 1025 – 1027 (2009).
  • Mateos-Lindemann ML, Gonzalez-Galdámez A, Bordallo-Cardona M, Pérez-Gracia MT. Are HIV-infected patients a high-risk population for hepatitis E virus infection in Spain? Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin. 30, 582 – 583 (2012).
  • Jardi R, Crespo M, Homs M et al. HIV, HEV and cirrhosis: evidence of a possible link from eastern Spain. HIV Med. 86, 71 – 74 (2012).
  • Dalton HR, Bendall RP, Rashid M et al. Host risk factors and autochthonous hepatitis E infection. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 23, 1200 – 1205 (2011).
  • Kumar Acharya S, Kumar Sharma P, Singh R et al. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in patients with cirrhosis is associated with rapid decompensation and death. J. Hepatol. 46, 387 – 394 (2007).
  • Dalton HR, Bendall R, Ijaz S, Banks M. Hepatitis E: an emerging infection in developed countries. Lancet Infect. Dis. 8, 698 – 709 (2008).
  • Kamar N, Bendall RP, Peron JM et al. Hepatitis E virus and neurologic disorders. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17, 173 – 179 (2011).
  • Van der Berg, van der Eijk AA, Pas SD, Hunter JG, Madden RG, Tio-Guillen AP. Guillain–Barre syndrome associated with preceding hepatitis E virus infection. Neurology 82, 491 – 497 (2014).
  • Thapa R, Biswas B, Mallick D, Ghosh A. Acute pancreatitis complicating hepatitis E virus infection in a 7-year-old boy with glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila) 48, 199 – 201 (2009).
  • Singh NK, Gangappa M. Acute immune thrombocytopenia associated with hepatitis E in an adult. Am. J. Hematol. 82, 942 – 943 (2007).
  • Thapa R, Mallick D, Biswas B. Henoch Schonlein purpura triggered by acute hepatitis E virus infection. J. Emerg. Med. 39, 218 – 219 (2010).
  • Kamar N, Weclawiack H, Guilbeaud-Frugier C et al. Hepatitis E virus and the kidney in solid-organ-transplant patient. Transplantation 93, 617 – 623 (2012).
  • Dalton HR, Hunter JG, Bendall R. Autochthonous hepatitis E in developed countries and HEV/HIV coinfection. Semin. Liver. Dis. 33, 50 – 61 (2013).
  • Dawson GJ, Mushahwar IK, Chau KH, Gitnick GL. Detection of long-lasing antibody to hepatitis E virus in a US traveller to Pakistan. Lancet 340, 426 – 427 (1992).
  • Hyams C, Mabayoje DA, Copping R et al. Serological cross reactivity to CMV and EBV causes problems in the diagnosis of acute hepatitis E virus infection. J. Med. Virol. 86, 478 – 483 (2014).
  • Herremans M, Bakker J, Duizer E, Vennema H, Koopsmans MO. Use of serological assays for diagnosis of hepatitis E virus genotype 1 and 3 infections in a setting of low endemicity. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 14, 562 – 568 (2007).
  • Kamar N, Izopet J, Tripon S et al. Ribavirin for chronic hepatitis E virus infection in transplant recipients. N. Engl. J. Med. 370, 1111 – 1120 (2014).
  • Haagsma EB, Riezebos-Brilman A, van den Berg AP, Porte RJ, Niesters HGM. Treatment of chronic hepatitis E in liver transplant recipients with pegilated interferon alpha-2b. Liver Transpl. 16, 474 – 477 (2010).
  • Legrand-Abravanel F, Kamar N, Sandres-Saune K et al. Characteristics of autochthonous hepatitis E virus infection in solid-organ transplant recipients in France. J. Infect. Dis. 202, 835 – 844 (2010).
  • Bihl F, Negro F. Chronic hepatitis E in the immunosuppressed: a new source of trouble? J. Hepatol. 50, 435 – 437 (2009).
  • Kamar N, Rostaing L, Abravanel F et al. Ribavirin therapy inhibits viral replication on patients with chronic hepatitis E virus infection. Gastroenterology 139, 1612 – 1618 (2010).
  • Mallet V, Nicand E, Sultanik P. Brief communication: case reports of ribavirin treatment for chronic hepatitis E. Ann. Intern. Med. 153 (2 ), 85 – 89 (2010).
  • Chaillon A, Sirinelli A, De Muret A, Nicand E, d'Alteroche L, Goudeau A. Sustained virologic response with ribavirin in chronic hepatitis E virus infection in heart transplantation. J. Heart Lung Transplant. 30 (7 ), 841 – 843 (2011).
  • Pischke S, Stiefel P, Franz B et al. Chronic hepatitis E in heart transplant recipients. Am. J. Transplant. 12 (11 ), 3128 – 3133 (2012).
  • de Niet A, Zaaijer HL, ten Berge I, Weegink CJ, Reesink HW, Beuers U. Chronic hepatitis E after solid organ transplantation. Neth. J. Med. 70 (6 ), 261 – 266 (2012).
  • Del Bello A, Arné-Bes MC, Lavayssière L, Kamar N. Hepatitis E virus-induced severe myositis. J. Hepatol. 57 (5 ), 1152 – 1153 (2012).
  • Pischke S, Hardtke S, Bode U et al. Ribavirin treatment of acute and chronic hepatitis E: a single-centre experience. Liver Int. 33 (5 ), 722 – 726 (2013).
  • Pischke S, Greer M, Hardtke S et al. Course and treatment of chronic hepatitis E virus infection in lung transplant recipients. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 16 (2 ), 333 – 339 (2014).
  • Galante A, Pischke S, Polywka S et al. Relevance of chronic hepatitis E in liver transplant recipients: a real-life setting. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 17 (4 ), 617 – 622 (2015).
  • Antón MD, Cuchillo H, Ferrando I et al. Treatment with ribavirin of hepatitis E virus chronic infection in transplanted patients. Rev. Esp. Enferm. Dig. 107 (3 ), 187 – 188 (2015).
  • Klein F, Neuhaus R, Hofmann J, Rudolph B, Neuhaus P, Bahra M. Successful treatment of chronic hepatitis E after an orthotopic liver transplant with ribavirin monotherapy. Exp. Clin. Transplant. 13 (3 ), 283 – 286 (2015).
  • Kamar N, Rostaing L, Abravanel F et al. Pegylated interferon-alpha for treating chronic hepatitis E virus infection after liver transplantation. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50 (5 ), e30 – e33 (2010).
  • Kamar N, Abravanel F, Garrouste C et al. Three-month pegylated interferon-alpha-2a therapy for chronic hepatitis E virus infection in a haemodialysis patient. Nephrol. Dial. Traspl. 25, 2792 – 2795 (2010).
  • Arankalle VA, Chadha MS, Dama BM, Tsarev SA, Purcell RH, Banerjee K. Role of immune serum globulins in pregnant women during an epidemic of hepatitis E. J. Viral Hepat. 3, 199 – 204 (1998).
  • Purcell RH, Nguyen H, Shapiro M et al. Pre-clinical immunogenicity and efficacy trial of a recombinant hepatitis E vaccine. Vaccine 21, 2607 – 2615 (2003).
  • Kamili S, Spelbring J, Carson D, Krawczynski K. Protective efficacy of hepatitis E virus DNA vaccine administered by gene gun in the cynomolgus macaque model of infection. J. Infect. Dis. 189, 258 – 264 (2004).
  • Shrestha MP, Scott RM, Joshi DM et al. Safety and efficacy of a recombinant hepatitis E vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 895 – 903 (2007).
  • Li SW, Zhang J, Li YM et al. A bacterially expressed particulate hepatitis E vaccine: antigenicity, immunogenicity and protectivity on primates. Vaccine 23, 2893 – 2901 (2005).
  • Zhang J, Liu CB, Li RC et al. Randomized-controlled Phase II clinical trial of a bacterially expressed recombinant hepatitis E vaccine. Vaccine 27, 1869 – 1874 (2009).
  • Zhu FC, Zhang J, Zhang XF et al. Efficacy and safety of a recombinant hepatitis E vaccine in healthy adults: a large-scale, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled, Phase 3 trial. Lancet 376, 895 – 902 (2010).
  • Harmanci H, Duclos P, Rodriguez Hernandez CA et al. WHO approaches to evaluating the potential use and quality of hepatitis E vaccine. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 1 (3 ), ofu099 (2014).
  • WHO. Hepatitis E vaccine: WHO position paper, May 2015. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 18, 185 – 200 (2015).
  • Liu P, Du RJ, Wang L et al. Management of hepatitis E virus (HEV) zoonotic transmission: protection of rabbits against HEV challenge following immunization with HEV 239 vaccine. PLoS ONE 9 (1 ), e87600 (2014).
  • Wang L, Cao D, Wei C et al. A dual vaccine candidate against norovirus and hepatitis E virus. Vaccine 32, 445 – 452 (2014).
  • Wang Y, Zhou X, Debing Y et al. Calcineurin inhibitors stimulate and mycophenolic acid inhibits replication of hepatiits E virus. Gastroenterology 146, 1775 – 1783 (2014).
  • Zhou X, Wang Y, Metselaar HJ et al. Rapamycin and everolimus facilitate hepatitis E virus replication: revealing a basal defense mechanism of P13K–PKB–mTOR pathway. J. Hepatol. 61, 746 – 754 (2014).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.