Advanced search
Publication Cover
Future Microbiology Volume 8, 2013 - Issue 12
Submit an article Journal homepage
488
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Cryptococcus Gattii Infections: Contemporary Aspects of Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestations and Management of Infection

Brendan Joseph McMullan1 Department of Immunology & Infectious Diseases, Sydney Children‘s Hospital, Randwick, New South Wales, Australia;2 School of Women‘s & Children‘s Health, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia;3 Westmead Clinical School, University of Sydney, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
,
Tania Christine Sorrell4 Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia;5 Sydney Emerging Infections Biosecurity Institute, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
&
Sharon Chih-Ann Chen5 Sydney Emerging Infections Biosecurity Institute, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia;4 Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia. Tel.: +61 2 9845 6255 Fax: +61 2 9893 [email protected]
Pages 1613-1631 | Published online: 22 Nov 2013

References

  • Park BJ , WanneumuehlerKA, MarstonBJ, GovenderN, PappasPG, ChillerTM. Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among patients living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS23 , 525–530 (2009).
  • Kurtzman C , FellJW, BoekhoutT. The Yeasts: a Taxonomic Study (5th Edition). Elsevier Science, London, UK (2011).
  • Perfect JR , CasadevallA. The history of Cryptococcus and Cryptococcosis. In: Cryptococcus: From Human Pathogen to Model Yeast. Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung J, Perfect J, Casadevall A (Eds). American Society for Microbiology Press, Washington, DC, USA, 17–26 (2011).
  • Kwong-Chung K , BoekhoutT, FellJW, DiazM. Proposal to conserve the name gattii against C. hondurianus and C. bacillisporus (Basidiomycota, Hymenomycetes, Tremellomycetidae). Taxon51 , 804–806 (2002).
  • MacDougall L , KiddSE, GalanisE et al. Spread of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia, Canada, and detection in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13 , 42–50 (2007).
  • CDC. Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii – Pacific Northwest, 2004–2010. Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep.59 , 865–868 (2010).
  • Harris J , LockhartS, DebessE et al. Cryptococcus gattii in the United States: clinical aspects of infection with an emerging pathogen. Clin. Infect. Dis.53 , 1188–1195 (2011).
  • Hagen F , ColomMF, SwinneD et al. Autochthonous and dormant Cryptococcus gattii infections in Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18 , 1618–1624 (2012).
  • Chen SC -A, Slavin MA, Heath CH et al.; Australia and New Zealand Mycoses Interest Group (ANZMIG)-Cryptococcus Study. Clinical manifestations of Cryptococcus gattii infection: determinants of neurological sequelae and death. Clin. Infect. Dis.55 , 789–790 (2012).
  • Sanfelice F . Contributo alla morfologia e biolgia dei blastomiceti che si sviluppano nei succhi di alcuni frutti. Ann. d‘igiene4 , 463–495 (1894).
  • Gatti F , EeckelsR. An atypical strain of Cryptococcus neoformans (San Felice) Vuillemin, 1894. I. Description of the disease and of the strain. Ann. Soc. Belges Med. Trop. Parasitol. Mycol.50 , 689- 693 (1970).
  • Kwon-Chung KJ , BennettJE. Epidemiologic differences between the two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans. Am. J. Epidemiol.120 , 123–130 (1984).
  • Ellis DH , PfeifferTJ. Natural habitat of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii. J. Clin. Microbiol.128 , 1642–1644 (1990).
  • Mitchell DH , SorrellTC, AllworthAM et al. Cryptococcal disease of the CNS in immunocompetent hosts: influence of cryptococcal variety on clinical manifestations and outcome. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20 , 611–616 (1995).
  • Seaton RA , VermaN, NaraqiS, WembriJP, WarrellDA. Visual loss in immunocompetent patients with Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii meningitis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.91 , 44–49 (1997).
  • Speed B , DuntD. Clinical and host differences between infections with the two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin. Infect. Dis.21 , 28–34 (1995).
  • Chen S , SorrellT, NimmoG et al. Epidemiology and host- and variety-dependent characteristics of infection due to Cryptococcus neoformans in Australia and New Zealand. Australasian Cryptococcal Study Group. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 , 499–508 (2000).
  • Laurenson IF , TrevettAJ, LallooDG et al. Meningitis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii and var. neoformans in Papua New Guinea. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 90 , 57–60 (1996).
  • Harris J , LockhartS, ChillerT. Cryptococcus gattii: where do we go from here?. Med. Mycol.50 , 113–129 (2012).
  • Cogliati M . Global molecular epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii: an atlas of the molecular types. Scientifica2013 , 675213 (2013).
  • Kidd SE , HagenF, TscharkeRL et al. A rare genotype of Cryptococcus gattii caused the cryptococcosis outbreak on Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada). Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101 , 17258–17263 (2004).
  • Kidd SE , ChowY, MakS et al. Characterization of environmental sources of the human and animal pathogen Cryptococcus gattii in British Columba, Canada, and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73 , 1433–1443 (2007).
  • Kidd SE , BachPJ, HingstonAO et al.Cryptococcus gattii dispersal mechanisms. British Columbia, Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis.13 , 51–57 (2007).
  • Kwon-Chung KC , VarmaA. Do major species concepts support one, or more species within Cryptococcus neoformans?. FEMS Yeast Res.6 , 574–587 (2006).
  • Feng X , FuX, LingB, WangL, LiaoW, YaoZ. Development of a singleplex PCR assay for rapid identification and differentiation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii, Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii and hybrids. J. Clin. Microbiol.51(6) , 1920–1923 (2013).
  • D‘Souza CA , KronstadJW, TaylorG et al. Genome variation in Cryptococcus gattii, an emerging pathogen of immunocompetent hosts. MBio 2 , e00342–10 (2011).
  • Ngamskulrungroj P , GilgadoF, FaganelloJ et al. Genetic diversity of the Cryptococcus species complex suggests that Cryptococcus gattii deserves to have varieties. PLoS ONE 4 , e5862 (2009).
  • Bovers M , DiazMR, HagenF et al. Identification of genotypically diverse Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii isolates by Luminex xMAP technology. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45 , 1874–1883 (2007).
  • Meyer W , AanensenDM, BoekhoutT et al. Consensus multi-locus sequence typing scheme for Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. Med. Mycol. 47 , 561–570 (2009).
  • Sidrim JJ , CostaAK, CostaF et al. Molecular methods for the diagnosis and characterization of Cryptococcus: a review. Can. J. Microbiol. 56 , 445–458 (2010).
  • Meyer W , GilgadoF, NgamskulrungrojP et al. Molecular typing of the Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii species complex. In: Cryptococcus: From Human Pathogen to Model Yeast. Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung J, Perfect J, Casadevall A (Eds). American Society for Microbiology, Press, Washington, DC, USA, 327–357 (2011).
  • Hoang LM , PhillipsP, GalanisE. Cryptococcus gattii: a review of the epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of this endemic yeast in the Pacific Northwest. Clin. Microbiol. Newsl.33 , 187–195 (2011).
  • Byrnes EJ , LiW, LewitY et al. Emergence and pathogenicity of highly virulent Cryptococcus gattii genotypes in the northwest United States. PLoS Pathog. 6 , e1000850 (2010).
  • Iqbal N , DebessEE, WohrleR et al. Correlation of genotype and in vitro susceptibilities of Cryptococcus gattii strains from the Pacific Northwest of the United States. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48 , 539–544 (2010).
  • Campbell LT , FraserJA, NicholsCB, DietrichFS, CarterD, HeitmanJ. Clinical and environmental isolates of Cryptococcus gattii from Australia that retain sexual fecundity. Euk. Cell4 , 1410–1419 (2005).
  • Chen SC , CurrieBJ, CampbellHM et al. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii in northern Australia: existence of an environmental source other than known host eucalypts. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.91 , 547–550 (1997).
  • Laman M , HwaihwanjeI, DavisTM, ManningL. Cryptococcal meningitis in immunocompetent Papua New Guinean children. Trop. Doct.40 , 61–63 (2010).
  • Chaturvedi V , ChaturvediS. Cryptococcus gattii: a resurgent fungal pathogen. Trends Microbiol.19 , 564–571 (2011).
  • Stephen C , LesterS, BlackW, FyfeM, RavertyS. Multispecies outbreak of cryptococcosis on southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Can. Vet. J.43 , 792–794 (2002).
  • Bartlett K , FyfeMW, MacDougallLA. Environmental Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii in British Columbia, Canada. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med.167 , A499 (2003).
  • Galanis E , MacDougallL. Epidemiology of Cryptococcus gattii, British Columbia, Canada, 1999–2007. Emerg. Infect. Dis.16 , 251–257 (2010).
  • Climate Impacts Group. The Washington Climate Change Impacts Assessment. McGuire Elsner M, Littell J, Whitely Binders L (Eds). Center for Science in the Earth System, Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans, University of Washington, WA, USA (2009).
  • Fraser JA , GilesSS, WeninkEC et al. Same-sex mating and the origin of the Vancouver Island Cryptococcus gattii outbreak. Nature 437 , 1360–1364 (2005).
  • Carriconde F , GilgadoF, ArthurI et al. Clonality and α-a recombination in the Australian Cryptococcus gattii VGII population – an emerging outbreak in Australia. PLoS ONE 6 , e16936 (2011).
  • Escandon P , SanchezA, MartinezM, MeyerW, CastanedaE. Molecular epidemiology of clinical and environmental isolates of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex reveals a high genetic diversity and the presence of the molecular type VGII mating type a in Colombia. FEMS Yeast Res.6 , 625–635 (2006).
  • Colom MF , HagenF, GonzalezA et al. Ceratonia siliqua (carob) trees as natural habitat and source of infection by Cryptococcus gattii in the Mediterranean environment. Med. Mycol.50 , 67–73 (2012).
  • Sukroongreung S , NilakulC, RuangsomboonO, ChuakulW, EampokalapB. Serotypes of Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from patients prior to and during the AIDS era in Thailand. Mycopathologia135 , 75–78 (1976).
  • Chowdhary A , RhandhawaHS, PrakashA, MeisJF. Environmental prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii in India: an update. Crit. Rev. Microbiol.38 , 1–16 (2012).
  • Litvintseva AP , ThakurR, RellerLB, MitchellTG. Prevalence of clinical isolates of Cryptococcus gattii serotype C among patients with AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. J. Infect. Dis.192 , 888–892 (2005).
  • Lemmer K , NaumannD, RaddatzB, TintelnotK. Molecular typing of Cryptococcus neoformans by PCR fingerprinting, in comparison with serotyping and Fourier transform infrared-spectroscopy-based phenotyping. Med. Mycol.42 , 135–147 (2004).
  • Bogaerts J , RouvroyD, TaelmanH et al. AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis in Rwanda (1983–1992): epidemiologic and diagnostic features. J. Infect. 39 , 32–37 (1999).
  • Morgan J , McCarthyKM, GouldS et al. Cryptococcus gattii infection: characteristics and epidemiology of cases identified in a South African province with high HIV seroprevalence, 2002–2004. Clin. Infect. Dis.43 , 1077–1080 (2006).
  • Howell SA . Hazen KC. Candida, Cryptococcus, and other yeasts of medical importance. In: Manual of Clinical Microbiology (10th Edition). Versalovic J, Carroll KC, Guido F, Jorgensen JH, Landry ML, Warnock DW (Eds). American Society for Microbiology Press, Washington, DC, USA, 1793–1821 (2011).
  • MacDougall L , FyfeM, RomneyM, StarrM, GalanisE. Risk factors for Cryptococcus gattii infection, British Columbia, Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis.17 , 193–199 (2011).
  • Marr KA , DattaK, PirofskiL, BarnesR. Cryptococcus gattii infection in healthy hosts: a sentinel for subclinical immunodeficiency. Clin. Infect. Dis.54 , 153 (2012).
  • Steele KT , ThakurR, NthobatsangR, SteenhoffAP, BissonGP. In hospital mortality of HIV-infected cryptococcal meningitis patients with C. gattii and C. neoformans infection in Gaborone, Botswana. Med. Mycol.48 , 1112–1115 (2010).
  • Wozniak K , LevitzS. T cell and dendritic cell immune responses to Cryptococcus. In: Cryptococcus: From Human Pathogen to Model Yeast. Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung J, Perfect J, Casadevall A (Eds), American Society for Microbiology Press, Washington, DC, USA, 387–396 (2011).
  • Dromer F , Mathoulin-PélissierS, LaunayO, Lortholary O; French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Determinants of disease presentation and outcome during cryptococcosis: the CryptoA/D study. PLoS Med.4 , e21 (2007).
  • Perfect JR , DismukesWE, DromerF et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50 , 291–322 (2010).
  • Speed B , KaldorJ. Rarity of cryptococcal infection in children. Paed. Infect. Dis. J.16 , 536–537 (1997).
  • Meiring ST , QuanVC, CohenC et al.; Group for Enteric, Respiratory and Meningeal Disease Surveillance in South Africa (GERMS-SA). A comparison of cases of paediatric-onset and adult-onset cryptococcosis detected through population-based surveillance, 2005–2007. AIDS26 , 2307–2314 (2012).
  • Severo CB , XavierMO, GazzoniAF, SeveroLC. Cryptococcosis in children. Ped. Resp. Rev.10 , 166–171 (2009).
  • Seaton RA , HamiltonAJ, HayRJ, WarrellDA. Exposure to Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii – a seroepidemiological study. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.90 , 508–512 (1996).
  • Goldman DL , KhineH, AbadiJ et al.Serologic evidence for Cryptococcus neoformans infection in early childhood. Pediatrics107 , e66 (2001).
  • Corrêa Mdo P , OliveiraEC, DuarteRR, PardalPP, Oliveira Fde M, Severo LC. Cryptococcosis in children in the state of Pará, Brazil. Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop.32 , 505–508 (1999).
  • Krockenberger MB , CanfieldPJ, MalikR. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus): a review of 43 cases of cryptococcosis. Med. Mycol.41 , 225–234 (2003).
  • O‘Brien CR , KrockenbergerMB, WigneyDI, MartinP, MalikR. Retrospective study of feline and canine cryptococcosis in Australia from 1981 to 195 cases. Med. Mycol.42 , 449–460 (2004).
  • Miller WG , PadhyeAA, van Bonn W, Jensen E, Brandt ME, Ridgway SH. Cryptococcosis in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) caused by Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii. J. Clin. Microbiol.40 , 721–724 (2002).
  • Norman S , RavertyS, ZabekEJ et al. Maternal–fetal transmission of Cryptococcus gattii in harbor porpoise. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17 , 304–305 (2011).
  • Galanis E , HoangL, KibseyP, MorshedM, PhilipsP. Clinical presentation, diagnosis and management of Cryptococcus gattii cases: lessons learned from British Columbia. Can. J. Infect. Dis. Med. Microbiol.20 , 23–25 (2009).
  • Mistry N , TanK, ShokraviM, HoangL. Cryptococcus gattii infections with cutaneous involvement. J. Cutan. Med. Surg.15 , 236–237 (2011).
  • Araujo BS , BayM, ReichertR, GoldaniLZ. Intra-abdominal cryptococcosis by Cryptococcus gattii: case report and review. Mycopathologia174 , 81–85 (2012).
  • MacDougall L , FyfeM. Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii in a novel environment provides clues to its incubation period. J. Clin. Microbiol.44 , 1851–1852 (2006).
  • Lindberg J , HagenF, LaursenA, StenderupJ, BoekhoutT. Cryptococcus gattii risk for tourists visiting Vancouver Island, Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis.13 , 178–179 (2007).
  • Georgi A , SchneemannM, TintelnotK et al. Cryptococcus gattii meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent person 13 months after exposure. Infection37 , 370–373 (2009).
  • Hagen F , van Assen S, Luijckx G et al. Activated dormant Cryptococcus gattii infection in a Dutch tourist who visited Vancouver island (Canada): a molecular epidemiological approach. Med. Mycol.48 , 528–531 (2010).
  • Garcia-Hermoso D , JanbonG, DromerF. Epidemiological evidence for dormant Cryptococcus neoformans infection. J. Clin. Microbiol.37 , 3204–3209 (1999).
  • Dromer F , CasadevallA, PerfectJ, SorrellT. Cryptococcus neoformans: latency and disease. In: Cryptococcus: From Pathogen to Model Yeast. Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung J, Perfect J, Casadevall A (Eds). American Society for Microbiology Press, Washington, DC, USA, 431 (2011).
  • Lalloo D , FisherD, NaraqiN et al. Cryptococcal meningitis (C. neoformans var. gattii) leading to blindness in previously health Melanesian adults in Papua New Guinea. Q. J. Med. 87 , 343–349 (1994).
  • Mitchell DH , SorrellTC. Pancoast‘s syndrome due to pulmonary infection with Cryptococcus neoformans variety gattii. Clin. Infect. Dis.14 , 1142–1144 (1992).
  • Yang CJ , HwangJJ, WangTH et al. Clinical and radiographic presentations of pulmonary cryptococcosis in immunocompetent patients. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 38 , 788–793 (2006).
  • Graybill JR , SobelJ, SaagM et al. Diagnosis and management of increased intracranial pressure in patients with AIDS and cryptococcal meningitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30 , 47–54 (2000).
  • Park MK , HospenthalDR, BennettJE. Treatment of hydrocephalus secondary to cryptococcal meningitis by use of shunting. Clin. Infect. Dis.28 , 629–633 (1999).
  • Chen SC , KormanTK, SlavinMA et al. Antifungal therapy and management of complications of cryptococcosis due to Cryptococcus gattii. Clin. Infect. Dis. 57(4) , 543–551 (2013).
  • Phillips P , ChapmanK, SharpM et al. Dexamethasone in Cryptococcus gattii central nervous system infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49 , 591–595 (2009).
  • Lane M , McBrideJ, ArcherJ. Steroid responsive late deterioration in Cryptococcus neoformans variety gattii meningitis. Neurology63 , 713–714 (2004).
  • Einsiedel L , GordonDL, DyerJR. Paradoxical inflammatory reaction during treatment of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii meningitis in an HIV-seronegative woman. Clin. Infect. Dis.9 , e78–e82 (2004).
  • Boulware DR , BonhamSC, MeyaDB et al. Paucity of initial cerebrospinal fluid inflammation in cryptococcal meningitis is associated with subsequent immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. J. Infect. Dis. 202 , 962–970 (2010).
  • Wiesner DL , BoulwareDR. Cryptococcus-related immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS): pathogenesis and its clinical implications. Curr. Fungal Infect. Rep.5 , 252–261 (2011).
  • Jenny A , PandithageK, FisherDA, CurrieBJ. Cryptococcus infection in tropical Australia. J. Clin. Microbiol.42 , 3865–3868 (2004).
  • Baddley JW , PerfectJR, OsterRA et al. Pulmonary cryptococcosis in patients without HIV infection: factors associated with disseminated disease. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 27 , 937–943 (2008).
  • Charlier C , DromerF, LevequeC et al. Cryptococcal neuroradiological lesions correlate with severity during cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in HIV-positive patients in the HAART era. PLoS ONE 3 , e1950 (2008).
  • Smith AB , SmirniotopoulosJG, RushingEJ. Central nervous system infections associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection: radiologic–pathologic correlation. Radiographics28 , 2033–2058 (2008).
  • Diaz MR , NguyenMH. Diagnostic approach based on capsular antigen, capsule detection, β-glucan and DNA analysis. In: Cryptococcus: From Human Pathogen to Model Yeast. Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung J, Perfect J, Casadevall A (Eds). American Society for Microbiology Press, Washington DC, USA, 547–564 (2011).
  • Saha DC , XessI, JainN. Evaluation of conventional and serological methods for rapid diagnosis of cryptococcosis. Indian J. Med. Res.127 , 483–488 (2008).
  • Petter R , KangBS, BoekhoutT, DavisBJ, Kwon-ChungKJ. A survey of heterobasidiomycetous yeasts for the presence of the genes homologous to virulence factors of Filobasidiella neoformans, CNLAC1 and CAP59. Microbiology147 , 2029–2036 (2001).
  • Okoli I , OyekaCA, Kwon-ChungKJ et al. Cryptotrichosporon anacardii gen. nov., sp. nov., a new trichosporonoid capsulate basidiomycetous yeast from Nigeria that is able to form melanin on niger seed agar. FEMS Yeast Res.7 , 339–350 (2007).
  • Hansen J , SletchaES, MarcelleneA et al. Large-scale evaluation of the Immuno-Mycologics lateral flow and enzyme-linked immunoassays for detection of cryptococcal antigen in serum and cerebrospinal fluid. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 20 , 52–55 (2013).
  • Lindsley M , MekhaN, BaggettHC et al. Evaluation of a newly developed lateral flow immunoassay for the diagnosis of cryptococcosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 53 , 321–325 (2011).
  • Jarvis JN , PercivalA, BaumanS et al. Evaluation of a novel point-of-care cryptococcal antigen test on serum, plasma, and urine from patients with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 53 , 1019–1023 (2011).
  • McMullan B , HallidayC, SorrellT et al. Evaluation of the cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) lateral flow assay in a diagnostic mycology laboratory. PLoS ONE 7 , e49541 (2012).
  • Katsu M , KiddS, AndoA et al. The internal transcribed spacers and 5.8S rRNA gene show extensive diversity among isolates of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. FEMS Yeast Res. 4 , 377–388 (2004).
  • Kaocharoen S , WangB, TsuiKM, TrillesL, KongF, MeyerW. Hyperbranched rolling circle amplification as a rapid and sensitive method for species identification within the Cryptococcus species complex. Electrophoresis29 , 3183–3191 (2008).
  • Pinto A , HallidayC, ZahraM et al. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry identification of yeasts is contingent on robust reference spectra. PLoS ONE 6 , e25712 (2011).
  • McTaggart L , LeiE, RichardsonSE et al. Rapid identification of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). J. Clin. Microbiol. 49 , 3050–3053 (2011).
  • Firacative C , TrillesL, MeyerW. MALDI-TOF MS enables the rapid identification of the major molecular types within the Cryptococcus neoformans/C. gattii species complex. PLoS ONE7 , e37566 (2012).
  • Espinel-Ingroff A , ChowdharyA, Cuenca-EstrellaM et al. Cryptococcus neoformans–Cryptococcus gattii species complex: an international study of wild-type susceptibility endpoint distributions and epidemiological cut-off values for amphotericin B and flucytosine. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.56 , 3107–3113 (2012).
  • Espinel-Ingroff A , AllerAI, CantonE et al.Cryptococcus neoformans–Cryptococcus gattii species complex: an international study of wild-type susceptibility endpoint distributions and epidemiological cut-off values for fluconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, and voriconazole. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.56 , 5898–5906 (2012).
  • Ellis D , SorrellT, ChenS. Impact of antifungal resistance in Australia. Microbiol. Aust.28 , 171–173 (2007).
  • Thompson GR 3rd, Wiederhold NP, Fothergill AW, Vallor AC, Wickes BL, Patterson TF. Antifungal susceptibilities among different serotypes of Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.53 , 309–311 (2009).
  • Matos CS , de Souza Andrade A, Oliveira NS, Barros TF. Microbiological characteristics of clinical isolates of Cryptococcus spp. in Bahia, Brazil: molecular types and antifungal susceptibilities. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.31 , 1647–1652 (2012).
  • Chen YC , ChangSC, ShihCC et al. Clinical features and in vitro susceptibilities of two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans in Taiwan. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 36 , 175–183 (2000).
  • Torres-Rodríguez JM , Alvarado-RamírezE, MurcianoF, SellartM. MICs and minimum fungicidal concentrations of posaconazole, voriconazole and fluconazole for Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococus gattii. J. Antimicrob. Chemother.62 , 205–206 (2008).
  • Trilles L , MeyerW, WankeB, GuarroJ, LazeraM. Correlation of antifungal susceptibility and molecular type within the Cryptococcus neoformans/C. gattii species complex. Med. Mycol.50 , 328–332 (2012).
  • Hagen F , Illnait-Zaragozi M-T, Bartlett KH et al.In vitro antifungal susceptibilities and amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping of a worldwide collection of 350 clinical, veterinary, and environmental Cryptococcus gattii isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.54 , 5139–5145 (2010).
  • Lockhart SR , IqbalN, BoldenCB et al.; Cryptococcus gattii PNW Public Health Working Group. Epidemiologic cut-off values for triazole drugs in Cryptococcus gattii: correlation of molecular type and in vitro susceptibility. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.73 , 144–148 (2012).
  • Fisher D , LoD, BurrowJ, CurrieB. Cryptococcus neoformans in tropical northern Australia: predominantly variant gattii with good outcomes. Aust. NZ J. Med.23 , 678–681 (1993).
  • Dromer F , Bernede-BauduinC, GuillemotD, Lortholary O; French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Major role for amphotericin B-flucytosine combination in severe cryptococcosis. PLoS ONE3 , e2870 (2008).
  • Chau TT , MaiNH, PhuNH et al. A prospective descriptive study of cryptococcal meningitis in HIV uninfected patients in Vietnam – high prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii in the absence of underlying disease. BMC Infect. Dis. 10 , 199 (2010).
  • Rajasingham R . Meva DB, Boulware DR. Integrating cryptococcal antigen screening and pre-emptive treatment into routine HIV care. J. Acq. Immunodef. Syndr.59 , e85–e91 (2012).
  • Martins LM , de Andrade HM, Vainstein MH et al. Immunoproteomics and immunoinformatics analysis of Cryptococcus gattii: novel candidate antigens for diagnosis. Future Microbiol.8 , 549–563 (2013).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.