71
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Pathogenesis and Treatment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Associated Cytomegalovirus Retinitis

, &
Pages 503-520 | Published online: 04 May 2011

Bibliography

  • Lane HC : Pathogenesis of HIV infection: total CD4+ T-cell pool, immune activation, and inflammation.Top. HIV Med.18(1) , 2–6 (2010).
  • Vrisekoop N , MandlJN, GermainRN: Life and death as a T lymphocyte: from immune protection to HIV pathogenesis.J. Biol.8(10) , 91 (2009).
  • Revello MG , GernaG: Pathogenesis and prenatal diagnosis of human cytomegalovirus infection.J. Clin. Virol.29(2) , 71–83 (2004).
  • Gerna G , BaldantiF, RevelloMG: Pathogenesis of human cytomegalovirus infection and cellular targets.Hum. Immunol.65(5) , 381–386 (2004).
  • Steininger C : Clinical relevance of cytomegalovirus infection in patients with disorders of the immune system.Clin. Microbiol. Infect.13(10) , 953–963 (2007).
  • Sinclair J , Sissons P: Latency and reactivation of human cytomegalovirus. J. Gen. Virol.87(Pt 7) , 1763–1779 (2006).
  • Kempen JH , JabsDA, WilsonLA, DunnJP, WestSK: Incidence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in second eyes of patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome and unilateral CMV retinitis.Am. J. Ophthalmol.139(6) , 1028–1034 (2005).
  • Jabs DA , Van Natta ML, Holbrook JT, Kempen JH, Meinert CL, Davis MD: Longitudinal study of the ocular complications of AIDS: 1. Ocular diagnoses at enrollment. Ophthalmology114(4) , 780–786 (2007).
  • Lai TY , WongRL, LukFO, ChowVW, ChanCK, LamDS: Ophthalmic manifestations and risk factors for mortality of HIV patients in the post-highly active anti-retroviral therapy era.Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol.39(2) , 99–104 (2011).
  • Puhan MA , Van Natta ML, Palella FJ, Addessi A, Meinert C: Excess mortality in patients with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: temporal changes and risk factors. Clin. Infect. Dis.51(8) , 947–956 (2010).
  • Jabs DA , Van Natta ML, Thorne JE et al.: Course of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: 1. Retinitis progression. Ophthalmology111(12) , 2224–2231 (2004).
  • Kempen JH , MartinBK, WuAW, BarronB, ThorneJE, JabsDA: The effect of cytomegalovirus retinitis on the quality of life of patients with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy.Ophthalmology110(5) , 987–995 (2003).
  • Gharai S , VenkateshP, GargS, SharmaSK, VohraR: Ophthalmic manifestations of HIV infections in India in the era of HAART: analysis of 100 consecutive patients evaluated at a tertiary eye care center in India.Ophthalmic Epidemiol.15(4) , 264–271 (2008).
  • Palestine AG : Clinical aspects of cytomegalovirus retinitis.Rev. Infect. Dis.10(Suppl. 3) , S515–S521 (1988).
  • Bowen EF , WilsonP, AtkinsM et al.: Natural history of untreated cytomegalovirus retinitis.Lancet346(8991–8992) , 1671–1673 (1995).
  • Smith IL , MacdonaldJC, FreemanWR, ShapiroAM, SpectorSA: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis activity is accurately reflected by the presence and level of CMV DNA in aqueous humor and vitreous.J. Infect. Dis.179(5) , 1249–1253 (1999).
  • Thorne JE , JabsDA, KempenJH, HolbrookJT, NicholsC, MeinertCL: Incidence of and risk factors for visual acuity loss among patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy.Ophthalmology113(8) , 1432–1440 (2006).
  • Gona P , Van Dyke RB, Williams PL et al.: Incidence of opportunistic and other infections in HIV-infected children in the HAART era. JAMA296(3) , 292–300 (2006).
  • Livingston PG , KerrNC, SullivanJL: Ocular disease in children with vertically acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection.J. AAPOS2(3) , 177–181 (1998).
  • Du LT , CoatsDK, KlineMW et al.: Incidence of presumed cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV-infected pediatric patients.J. AAPOS3(4) , 245–249 (1999).
  • Scholz M , DoerrHW, CinatlJ: Human cytomegalovirus retinitis: pathogenicity, immune evasion and persistence.Trends Microbiol.11(4) , 171–178 (2003).
  • Skolnik PR , PomerantzRJ, de la Monte SM et al.: Dual infection of retina with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and cytomegalovirus. Am. J. Ophthalmol.107(4) , 361–372 (1989).
  • Rummelt V , RummeltC, JahnG et al.: Triple retinal infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1. Light and electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and in situ hybridization.Ophthalmology101(2) , 270–279 (1994).
  • Read RW , ZhangJA, IshimotoSI, RaoNA: Evaluation of the role of human retinal vascular endothelial cells in the pathogenesis of CMV retinitis.Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm.7(3–4) , 139–146 (1999).
  • Reeves M , SinclairJ: Aspects of human cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation.Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol.325 , 297–313 (2008).
  • Jackson SE , MasonGM, WillsMR: Human cytomegalovirus immunity and immune evasion.Virus Res. DOI:10.1016/j.virusres.2010.10.031 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Sinzger C , DigelM, JahnG: Cytomegalovirus cell tropism.Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol.325 , 63–83 (2008).
  • Rao NA , ZhangJ, IshimotoS: Role of retinal vascular endothelial cells in development of CMV retinitis.Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc.96 , 111–123 (1998).
  • Smith MS , BentzGL, AlexanderJS, YurochkoAD: Human cytomegalovirus induces monocyte differentiation and migration as a strategy for dissemination and persistence.J. Virol.78(9) , 4444–4453 (2004).
  • Waldman WJ , KnightDA, HuangEH, SedmakDD: Bidirectional transmission of infectious cytomegalovirus between monocytes and vascular endothelial cells: an in vitro model.J. Infect. Dis.171(2) , 263–272 (1995).
  • Bentz GL , Jarquin-PardoM, ChanG, SmithMS, SinzgerC, YurochkoAD: Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection of endothelial cells promotes naive monocyte extravasation and transfer of productive virus to enhance hematogenous dissemination of HCMV.J. Virol.80(23) , 11539–11555 (2006).
  • Zhang M , XinH, RoonP, AthertonSS: Infection of retinal neurons during murine cytomegalovirus retinitis.Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.46(6) , 2047–2055 (2005).
  • Tugizov S , MaidjiE, PereiraL: Role of apical and basolateral membranes in replication of human cytomegalovirus in polarized retinal pigment epithelial cells.J. Gen. Virol.77(Pt 1) , 61–74 (1996).
  • Sugita S : Role of ocular pigment epithelial cells in immune privilege.Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. (Warsz.)57(4) , 263–268 (2009).
  • Bodaghi B , Slobbe-van Drunen ME, Topilko A et al.: Entry of human cytomegalovirus into retinal pigment epithelial and endothelial cells by endocytosis. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.40(11) , 2598–2607 (1999).
  • Ryckman BJ , JarvisMA, DrummondDD, NelsonJA, JohnsonDC: Human cytomegalovirus entry into epithelial and endothelial cells depends on genes UL128 to UL150 and occurs by endocytosis and low-pH fusion.J. Virol.80(2) , 710–722 (2006).
  • Wang D , YuQC, SchroerJ, MurphyE, ShenkT: Human cytomegalovirus uses two distinct pathways to enter retinal pigmented epithelial cells.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA104(50) , 20037–20042 (2007).
  • Ryckman BJ , RainishBL, ChaseMC et al.: Characterization of the human cytomegalovirus gH/gL/UL128–131 complex that mediates entry into epithelial and endothelial cells.J. Virol.82(1) , 60–70 (2008).
  • Ryckman BJ , ChaseMC, JohnsonDC: HCMV gH/gL/UL128–131 interferes with virus entry into epithelial cells: evidence for cell type-specific receptors.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA105(37) , 14118–14123 (2008).
  • Wang D , ShenkT: Human cytomegalovirus UL131 open reading frame is required for epithelial cell tropism.J. Virol.79(16) , 10330–10338 (2005).
  • Wang D , ShenkT: Human cytomegalovirus virion protein complex required for epithelial and endothelial cell tropism.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA102(50) , 18153–18158 (2005).
  • Maidji E , TugizovS, JonesT, ZhengZ, PereiraL: Accessory human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein US9 in the unique short component of the viral genome promotes cell-to-cell transmission of virus in polarized epithelial cells.J. Virol.70(12) , 8402–8410 (1996).
  • Pereira L , MaidjiE, TugizovS, JonesT: Deletion mutants in human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein US9 are impaired in cell-cell transmission and in altering tight junctions of polarized human retinal pigment epithelial cells.Scand. J. Infect. Dis. Suppl.99 , 82–87 (1995).
  • Kalejta RF : Functions of human cytomegalovirus tegument proteins prior to immediate early gene expression.Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol.325 , 101–115 (2008).
  • Adair R , LiebischGW, LermanBJ, Colberg-PoleyAM: Human cytomegalovirus temporally regulated gene expression in differentiated, immortalized retinal pigment epithelial cells.J. Clin. Virol.35(4) , 478–484 (2006).
  • Murphy E , VanicekJ, RobinsH, ShenkT, LevineAJ: Suppression of immediate-early viral gene expression by herpesvirus-coded microRNAs: implications for latency.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA105(14) , 5453–5458 (2008).
  • Sinclair E , TanQX, SharpM et al.: Protective immunity to cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in AIDS is associated with CMV-specific T cells that express interferon-γ and interleukin-2 and have a CD8+ cell early maturational phenotype.J. Infect. Dis.194(11) , 1537–1546 (2006).
  • Miller-Kittrell M , SparerTE: Feeling manipulated: cytomegalovirus immune manipulation.Virol. J.6 , 4 (2009).
  • Crough T , KhannaR: Immunobiology of human cytomegalovirus: from bench to bedside.Clin. Microbiol. Rev.22(1) , 76–98 (2009).
  • Momma Y , NagineniCN, ChinMS, SrinivasanK, DetrickB, HooksJJ: Differential expression of chemokines by human retinal pigment epithelial cells infected with cytomegalovirus.Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.44(5) , 2026–2033 (2003).
  • Craigen JL , YongKL, JordanNJ et al.: Human cytomegalovirus infection up-regulates interleukin-8 gene expression and stimulates neutrophil transendothelial migration.Immunology92(1) , 138–145 (1997).
  • Cinatl J Jr, Blaheta R, Bittoova M et al.: Decreased neutrophil adhesion to human cytomegalovirus-infected retinal pigment epithelial cells is mediated by virus-induced up-regulation of Fas ligand independent of neutrophil apoptosis. J. Immunol.165(8) , 4405–4413 (2000).
  • Allart S , LuleJ, SerresB et al.: Impaired killing of HCMV-infected retinal pigment epithelial cells by anti-pp65 CD8+ cytotoxic T cells.Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.44(2) , 665–671 (2003).
  • Lawrence T : The nuclear factor NF-κB pathway in inflammation.Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol.1(6) , A001651 (2009).
  • Chan G , Bivins-SmithER, SmithMS, YurochkoAD: NF-κB and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity mediates the HCMV-induced atypical M1/M2 polarization of monocytes.Virus Res.144(1–2) , 329–333 (2009).
  • Cinatl J Jr, Margraf S, Vogel JU, Scholz M, Cinatl J, Doerr HW: Human cytomegalovirus circumvents NF-κB dependence in retinal pigment epithelial cells. J. Immunol.167(4) , 1900–1908 (2001).
  • Liversidge J , McKayD, MullenG, ForresterJV: Retinal pigment epithelial cells modulate lymphocyte function at the blood–retina barrier by autocrine PGE2 and membrane-bound mechanisms.Cell. Immunol.149(2) , 315–330 (1993).
  • Zhu H , CongJP, YuD, BresnahanWA, ShenkTE: Inhibition of cyclooxygenase 2 blocks human cytomegalovirus replication.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA99(6) , 3932–3937 (2002).
  • Schroer J , ShenkT: Inhibition of cyclooxygenase activity blocks cell-to-cell spread of human cytomegalovirus.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA105(49) , 19468–19473 (2008).
  • Chin MS , NagineniCN, HooperLC, DetrickB, HooksJJ: Cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression and regulation in human retinal pigment epithelial cells.Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.42(10) , 2338–2346 (2001).
  • Soderberg-Naucler C , NelsonJY: Human cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation – a delicate balance between the virus and its host‘s immune system.Intervirology42(5–6) , 314–321 (1999).
  • Sambucetti LC , CherringtonJM, WilkinsonGW, MocarskiES: NF-κB activation of the cytomegalovirus enhancer is mediated by a viral transactivator and by T cell stimulation.EMBO J.8(13) , 4251–4258 (1989).
  • Hunninghake GW , MonickMM, LiuB, StinskiMF: The promoter-regulatory region of the major immediate-early gene of human cytomegalovirus responds to T-lymphocyte stimulation and contains functional cyclic AMP-response elements.J. Virol.63(7) , 3026–3033 (1989).
  • Lang D , FickenscherH, StammingerT: Analysis of proteins binding to the proximal promoter region of the human cytomegalovirus IE-1/2 enhancer/promoter reveals both consensus and aberrant recognition sequences for transcription factors Sp1 and CREB.Nucleic Acids Res.20(13) , 3287–3295 (1992).
  • Kothari S , BaillieJ, SissonsJG, SinclairJH: The 21bp repeat element of the human cytomegalovirus major immediate early enhancer is a negative regulator of gene expression in undifferentiated cells.Nucleic Acids Res.19(8) , 1767–1771 (1991).
  • Liu R , BaillieJ, SissonsJG, SinclairJH: The transcription factor YY1 binds to negative regulatory elements in the human cytomegalovirus major immediate early enhancer/promoter and mediates repression in non-permissive cells.Nucleic Acids Res.22(13) , 2453–2459 (1994).
  • Zhang XY , InamdarNM, SupakarPC, WuK, EhrlichKC, EhrlichM: Three MDBP sites in the immediate-early enhancer-promoter region of human cytomegalovirus.Virology182(2) , 865–869 (1991).
  • Huang TH , OkaT, AsaiT et al.: Repression by a differentiation-specific factor of the human cytomegalovirus enhancer.Nucleic Acids Res.24(9) , 1695–1701 (1996).
  • Zweidler-Mckay PA , GrimesHL, FlubacherMM, TsichlisPN: Gfi-1 encodes a nuclear zinc finger protein that binds DNA and functions as a transcriptional repressor.Mol. Cell. Biol.16(8) , 4024–4034 (1996).
  • Bain M , MendelsonM, SinclairJ: Ets-2 Repressor factor (ERF) mediates repression of the human cytomegalovirus major immediate-early promoter in undifferentiated non-permissive cells.J. Gen. Virol.84(Pt 1) , 41–49 (2003).
  • Boomker JM , TheTH, de Leij LF, Harmsen MC: The human cytomegalovirus-encoded receptor US28 increases the activity of the major immediate-early promoter/enhancer. Virus Res.118(1–2) , 196–200 (2006).
  • Stein-Streilein J : Immune regulation and the eye.Trends Immunol.29(11) , 548–554 (2008).
  • Chiou SH , YangYP, LinJC et al.: The immediate early 2 protein of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) mediates the apoptotic control in HCMV retinitis through up-regulation of the cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein expression.J. Immunol.177(9) , 6199–6206 (2006).
  • Buggage RR , ChanCC, MattesonDM, ReedGF, WhitcupSM: Apoptosis in cytomegalovirus retinitis associated with AIDS.Curr. Eye Res.21(3) , 721–729 (2000).
  • Zamiri P , MasliS, KitaichiN, TaylorAW, StreileinJW: Thrombospondin plays a vital role in the immune privilege of the eye.Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.46(3) , 908–919 (2005).
  • Cinatl J Jr, Bittoova M, Margraf S et al.: Cytomegalovirus infection decreases expression of thrombospondin-1 and -2 in cultured human retinal glial cells: effects of antiviral agents. J. Infect. Dis.182(3) , 643–651 (2000).
  • Scholz M , VogelJU, HoverG et al.: Thrombin induces Sp1-mediated antiviral effects in cytomegalovirus-infected human retinal pigment epithelial cells.Med. Microbiol. Immunol.193(4) , 195–203 (2004).
  • Scholz M , VogelJU, HoverG et al.: Thrombin stimulates IL-6 and IL-8 expression in cytomegalovirus-infected human retinal pigment epithelial cells.Int. J. Mol. Med.13(2) , 327–331 (2004).
  • Koevary SB : Ocular immune privilege: a review.Clin. Eye Vis. Care12(3–4) , 97–106 (2000).
  • Helantera I , TeppoAM, KoskinenP, TornrothT, Gronhagen-RiskaC, LautenschlagerI: Increased urinary excretion of transforming growth factor-β(1) in renal transplant recipients during cytomegalovirus infection.Transpl. Immunol.15(3) , 217–221 (2006).
  • Helantera I , LoginovR, KoskinenP, TornrothT, Gronhagen-RiskaC, LautenschlagerI: Persistent cytomegalovirus infection is associated with increased expression of TGF-β1, PDGF-AA and ICAM-1 and arterial intimal thickening in kidney allografts.Nephrol. Dial. Transplant.20(4) , 790–796 (2005).
  • Trujillo JR , Jaramillo-RangelG, Ortega-MartinezM et al.: International NeuroAIDS: prospects of HIV-1 associated neurological complications.Cell Res.15(11–12) , 962–969 (2005).
  • Dunfee R , ThomasER, GorryPR, WangJ, AncutaP, GabuzdaD: Mechanisms of HIV-1 neurotropism.Curr. HIV Res.4(3) , 267–278 (2006).
  • Luo MH , SchwartzPH, FortunatoEA: Neonatal neural progenitor cells and their neuronal and glial cell derivatives are fully permissive for human cytomegalovirus infection.J. Virol.82(20) , 9994–10007 (2008).
  • Tsutsui Y , KosugiI, KawasakiH: Neuropathogenesis in cytomegalovirus infection: indication of the mechanisms using mouse models.Rev. Med. Virol.15(5) , 327–345 (2005).
  • Cheeran MC , LokensgardJR, SchleissMR: Neuropathogenesis of congenital cytomegalovirus infection: disease mechanisms and prospects for intervention.Clin. Microbiol. Rev.22(1) , 99–126 (2009).
  • Noyola DE , Jiménez-CapdevilleME, Demmler-HarrisonGJ: Central nervous system disorders in infants with congenital cytomegalovirus infection.Neurol. Res.32(3) , 278–284 (2010).
  • Skolnik PR , KosloffBR, HirschMS: Bidirectional interactions between human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and cytomegalovirus.J. Infect. Dis.157(3) , 508–514 (1988).
  • Griffiths PD : CMV as a cofactor enhancing progression of AIDS.J. Clin. Virol.35(4) , 489–492 (2006).
  • Kim A , DadgostarH, HollandGN et al.: Hemorheologic abnormalities associated with HIV infection: altered erythrocyte aggregation and deformability.Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.47(9) , 3927–3932 (2006).
  • Dadgostar H , HollandGN, HuangX et al.: Hemorheologic abnormalities associated with HIV infection: in vivo assessment of retinal microvascular blood flow.Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.47(9) , 3933–3938 (2006).
  • Kozak I , BartschDU, ChengL, KosobuckiBR, FreemanWR: Objective analysis of retinal damage in HIV-positive patients in the HAART era using OCT.Am. J. Ophthalmol.139(2) , 295–301 (2005).
  • Nakamuta S , EndoH, HigashiY et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120-mediated disruption of tight junction proteins by induction of proteasome-mediated degradation of zonula occludens-1 and -2 in human brain microvascular endothelial cells.J. Neurovirol.14(3) , 186–195 (2008).
  • Prosch S , WendtCE, ReinkeP et al.: A novel link between stress and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection: sympathetic hyperactivity stimulates HCMV activation.Virology272(2) , 357–365 (2000).
  • Ironson G , KremerH: Spiritual transformation, psychological well-being, health, and survival in people with HIV.Int. J. Psychiatry Med.39(3) , 263–281 (2009).
  • Deghaide NH , RodriguesML, CastelliEC, Mendes-JuniorCT, FigueiredoJF, DonadiEA: Tumor necrosis factor region polymorphisms are associated with AIDS and with cytomegalovirus retinitis.AIDS23(13) , 1641–1647 (2009).
  • Macdonald JC , KaravellasMP, TorrianiFJ et al.: Highly active antiretroviral therapy-related immune recovery in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis.Ophthalmology107(5) , 877–881 (2000).
  • Waib LF , BononSH, SallesAC et al.: Withdrawal of maintenance therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS patients exhibiting immunological response to HAART.Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo49(4) , 215–219 (2007).
  • Lurain NS , ChouS: Antiviral drug resistance of human cytomegalovirus.Clin. Microbiol. Rev.23(4) , 689–712 (2010).
  • Chou S : Cytomegalovirus UL97 mutations in the era of ganciclovir and maribavir.Rev. Med. Virol.18(4) , 233–246 (2008).
  • Kappel PJ , CharonisAC, HollandGN et al.: Outcomes associated with ganciclovir implants in patients with AIDS-related cytomegalovirus retinitis.Ophthalmology113(4) , 683–688 (2006).
  • Musch DC , MartinDF, GordonJF, DavisMD, KuppermannBD: Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with a sustained-release ganciclovir implant. The Ganciclovir Implant Study Group.N. Engl. J. Med.337(2) , 83–90 (1997).
  • Roth DB , FeuerWJ, BlenkeAJ, DavisJL: Treatment of recurrent cytomegalovirus retinitis with the ganciclovir implant.Am. J. Ophthalmol.127(3) , 276–282 (1999).
  • Patil AJ , SharmaA, KenneyMC, KuppermannBD: Valganciclovir in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV-infected patients.Clin. Ophthalmol.4 , 111–119 (2010).
  • Cvetkovic RS , WellingtonK: Valganciclovir: a review of its use in the management of CMV infection and disease in immunocompromised patients.Drugs65(6) , 859–878 (2005).
  • Jouan M , KatlamaC: Management of CMV retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy.Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents13(1) , 1–7 (1999).
  • Song MK , AzenSP, BuleyA et al.: Effect of anti-cytomegalovirus therapy on the incidence of immune recovery uveitis in AIDS patients with healed cytomegalovirus retinitis.Am. J. Ophthalmol.136(4) , 696–702 (2003).
  • Kirsch LS , ArevaloJF, Chavez de la Paz E, Munguia D, De CE, Freeman WR: Intravitreal cidofovir (HPMPC) treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology102(4) , 533–542 (1995).
  • Rahhal FM , ArevaloJF, MunguiaD et al.: Intravitreal cidofovir for the maintenance treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis.Ophthalmology103(7) , 1078–1083 (1996).
  • Stewart MW : Optimal management of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS.Clin. Ophthalmol.4 , 285–299 (2010).
  • Heiden D , FordN, WilsonD et al.: Cytomegalovirus retinitis: the neglected disease of the AIDS pandemic.PLOS Med.4(12) , E334 (2007).
  • Teerawattananon K , IewsakulS, YenjitrC et al.: Economic evaluation of treatment administration strategies of ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV/AIDS patients in Thailand: a simulation study.Pharmacoeconomics25(5) , 413–428 (2007).
  • Young S , McCluskeyP, MinassianDC et al.: Retinal detachment in cytomegalovirus retinitis: intravenous versus intravitreal therapy.Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol.31(2) , 96–102 (2003).
  • Visser L : Managing CMV retinitis in the developing world.Community Eye Health16(47) , 38–39 (2003).
  • Mahadevia PJ , GeboKA, PettitK, DunnJP, CovingtonMT: The epidemiology, treatment patterns, and costs of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the post-HAART era among a national managed-care population.J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr.36(4) , 972–977 (2004).
  • Duvvuri S , JanoriaKG, PalD, MitraAK: Controlled delivery of ganciclovir to the retina with drug-loaded Poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microspheres dispersed in PLGA-PEG-PLGA Gel: a novel intravitreal delivery system for the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis.J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther.23(3) , 264–274 (2007).
  • Peng YJ , WenCW, ChiouSH, LiuSJ: Sustained release of ganciclovir and foscarnet from biodegradable scleral plugs for the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis.Biomaterials31(7) , 1773–1779 (2010).
  • Lilleri D , PiccininiG, BaldantiF, SeminariE, GalloniD, GernaG: Multiple relapses of human cytomegalovirus retinitis during HAART in an AIDS patient with reconstitution of CD4+ T cell count in the absence of HCMV-specific CD4+ T cell response.J. Clin. Virol.26(1) , 95–100 (2003).
  • Jabs DA , MartinBK, FormanMS et al.: Cytomegalovirus resistance to ganciclovir and clinical outcomes of patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis.Am. J. Ophthalmol.135(1) , 26–34 (2003).
  • Jabs DA , MartinBK, FormanMS: Mortality associated with resistant cytomegalovirus among patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis and AIDS.Ophthalmology117(1) , 128–132 (2010).
  • Schrier RD , SongMK, SmithIL et al.: Intraocular viral and immune pathogenesis of immune recovery uveitis in patients with healed cytomegalovirus retinitis.Retina26(2) , 165–169 (2006).
  • Ortega-Larrocea G , EspinosaE, Reyes-TeránG: Lower incidence and severity of cytomegalovirus-associated immune recovery uveitis in HIV-infected patients with delayed highly active antiretroviral therapy.AIDS19(7) , 735–738 (2005).
  • Browne EP , ShenkT: Human cytomegalovirus UL83-coded pp65 virion protein inhibits antiviral gene expression in infected cells.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA100(20) , 11439–11444 (2003).
  • Jenkins C , AbendrothA, SlobedmanB: A novel viral transcript with homology to human interleukin-10 is expressed during latent human cytomegalovirus infection.J. Virol.78(3) , 1440–1447 (2004).
  • van Cleef KW , SmitMJ, BruggemanCA, VinkC: Cytomegalovirus-encoded homologs of G protein-coupled receptors and chemokines.J. Clin. Virol.35(3) , 343–348 (2006).
  • Beisser PS , LavreysenH, BruggemanCA, VinkC: Chemokines and chemokine receptors encoded by cytomegaloviruses.Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol.325 , 221–242 (2008).
  • Millar AB , MillerRF, PatouG, MindelA, MarshR, SempleSJ: Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with zidovudine and ganciclovir in patients with AIDS: outcome and toxicity.Genitourin. Med.66(3) , 156–158 (1990).
  • Martin DF , Sierra-MaderoJ, WalmsleyS et al.: A controlled trial of valganciclovir as induction therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis.N. Engl. J. Med.346(15) , 1119–1126 (2002).
  • Katlama C : Management of CMV retinitis in HIV infected patients.Genitourin. Med.73(3) , 169–173 (1997).
  • Gerard L , Salmon-CeronD: Pharmacology and clinical use of foscarnet.Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents5(4) , 209–217 (1995).
  • Jacobson MA : Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.N. Engl. J. Med.337(2) , 105–114 (1997).
  • Biron KK : Antiviral drugs for cytomegalovirus diseases.Antiviral Res.71(2–3) , 154–163 (2006).
  • Bourges JL , BloquelC, ThomasA et al.: Intraocular implants for extended drug delivery: therapeutic applications.Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.58(11) , 1182–1202 (2006).
  • Shane TS , MartinDF: Endophthalmitis after ganciclovir implant in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis.Am. J. Ophthalmol.136(4) , 649–654 (2003).
  • Dunn JP , VanNM, FosterG et al.: Complications of ganciclovir implant surgery in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis: the Ganciclovir Cidofovir Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial.Retina24(1) , 41–50 (2004).
  • Guembel HO , KrieglsteinerS, RosenkranzC, HattenbachLO, KochFH, OhrloffC: Complications after implantation of intraocular devices in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis.Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol.237(10) , 824–829 (1999).
  • Vitravene Study Group: Randomized dose-comparison studies of intravitreous fomivirsen for treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis that has reactivated or is persistently active despite other therapies in patients with AIDS. Am. J. Ophthalmol.133(4) , 475–483 (2002).
  • de Smet MD , MeenkenCJ, van den Horn GJ: Fomivirsen – a phosphorothioate oligonucleotide for the treatment of CMV retinitis. Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm.7(3–4) , 189–198 (1999).
  • Amin HI , AiE, McDonaldHR, JohnsonRN: Retinal toxic effects associated with intravitreal fomivirsen.Arch. Ophthalmol.118(3) , 426–427 (2000).
  • Stone TW , JaffeGJ: Reversible bull‘s-eye maculopathy associated with intravitreal fomivirsen therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis.Am. J. Ophthalmol.130(2) , 242–243 (2000).
  • Arevalo JF , GarciaRA, MendozaAJ: High-dose (5000-microg) intravitreal ganciclovir combined with highly active antiretroviral therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV-infected patients in Venezuela.Eur. J. Ophthalmol.15(5) , 610–618 (2005).
  • Yutthitham K , RuamviboonsukP: The high-dose, alternate-week intravitreal ganciclovir injections for cytomegalovirus retinitis in acquired immune deficiency syndrome patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy.J. Med. Assoc. Thai.88(Suppl. 9) , S63–S68 (2005).
  • Ausayakhun S , YuvavesP, NgamtiphakomS, PrasitsilpJ: Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS patients with intravitreal ganciclovir.J. Med. Assoc. Thai.88(Suppl. 9) , S15–S20 (2005).
  • Choopong P , TesavibulN, RodanantN: Crystallization after intravitreal ganciclovir injection.Clin. Ophthalmol.4 , 709–711 (2010).
  • Lieberman RM , OrellanaJ, MeltonRC: Efficacy of intravitreal foscarnet in a patient with AIDS.N. Engl. J. Med.330(12) , 868–869 (1994).
  • Ausayakhun S , WatananikornS, NgamtiphakornS, PrasitsilpJ: Intravitreal foscarnet for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS.J. Med. Assoc. Thai.88(1) , 103–107 (2005).
  • Kirsch LS , ArevaloJF, DeCE et al.: Phase I/II study of intravitreal cidofovir for the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.Am. J. Ophthalmol.119(4) , 466–476 (1995).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.