Pregnancy and Pharmacogenomics in the Context of Drug Metabolism and Response

• Daw JR , HanleyGE, GreysonDL, MorganSG. Prescription drug use during pregnancy in developed countries, a systematic review. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf.20, 895–902 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell AA , GilboaSM, WerlerMM, KelleyKE, LouikC, Hernández-DíazS. Medication use during pregnancy, with particular focus on prescription drugs: 1976–2008. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.205, 51.e1–e8 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt KJ , SchullerKL. The increasing prevalence of diabetes in pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am.34, 173–199, vii (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abduljalil K , FurnessP, JohnsonTN, Rostami-HodjeganA, SoltaniH. Anatomical, physiological and metabolic changes with gestational age during normal pregnancy, a database for parameters required in physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling. Clin. Pharmacokinet.51, 365–396 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrew MA , HebertMF, ViciniP. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model of midazolam disposition during pregnancy. Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc.2008, 5454–5457 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heidemann B , McClureJ. Changes in maternal physiology during pregnancy. Br. J. Anaesth.3, 65–68 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Sturgiss SN , DunlopW, DavisonJM. Renal haemodynamics and tubular function in human pregnancy. Baillieres Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol.8, 209–234 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kristensen K , LindströmV, SchmidtC et al. Temporal changes of the plasma levels of cystatin C, beta-trace protein, beta 2-microglobulin, urate and creatinine during pregnancy indicate continuous alterations in the renal filtration process. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 67, 612–618 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strevens H , Wide-SwenssonD, TorffvitO, GrubbA. Serum cystatin C for assessment of glomerular filtration rate in pregnant and non-pregnant women. Indications of altered filtration process in pregnancy. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest.62, 141–147 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlin A , AlfirevicZ. Physiological changes of pregnancy and monitoring. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol.22, 801–823 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomson T , LandmarkCJ, BattinoD. Antiepileptic drug treatment in pregnancy, changes in drug disposition and their clinical implications. Epilepsia54, 405–414 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tracy TS , VenkataramananR, GloverDD, CaritisSN. Temporal changes in drug metabolism (CYP1A2, CYP2D6 and CYP3A activity) during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.192, 633–639 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodge LS , TracyTS. Alterations in drug disposition during pregnancy, implications for drug therapy. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol.3, 557–571 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi SY , KohKH, JeongH. Isoform-specific regulation of cytochromes P450 expression by estradiol and progesterone. Drug Metab. Dispos.41, 263–269 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papageorgiou I , GrepperS, UnadkatJD. Induction of hepatic CYP3A enzymes by pregnancy-related hormones, studies in human hepatocytes and hepatic cell lines. Drug Metab. Dispos.41, 281–290 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson GD . Pregnancy-induced changes in pharmacokinetics, a mechanistic-based approach. Clin. Pharmacokinet.44, 989–1008 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson DR , ZeldinDC, HoffmanSM, MaltaisLJ, WainHM, NebertDW. Comparison of cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes from the mouse and human genomes, including nomenclature recommendations for genes, pseudogenes and alternative-splice variants. Pharmacogenetics14, 1–18 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guengerich FP . Cytochrome P450 and chemical toxicology. Chem. Res. Toxicol.21, 70–83 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingelman-Sundberg M , Rodriguez-AntonaC. Pharmacogenetics of drug-metabolizing enzymes, implications for a safer and more effective drug therapy. Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.360, 1563–1570 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson CS , TyndaleRF. Cytochrome P450 enzymes in the brain, emerging evidence of biological significance. Trends Pharmacol. Sci.32, 708–714 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stejskalova L , PavekP. The function of cytochrome P450 1A1 enzyme (CYP1A1) and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in the placenta. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol.12, 715–730 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rifkind AB . CYP1A in TCDD toxicity and in physiology-with particular reference to CYP dependent arachidonic acid metabolism and other endogenous substrates. Drug Metab. Rev.38, 291–335 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suryanarayana V , DeenadayalM, SinghL. Association of CYP1A1 gene polymorphism with recurrent pregnancy loss in the south Indian population. Hum. Reprod.19, 2648–2652 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsutsumi K , KotegawaT, MatsukiS et al. The effect of pregnancy on cytochrome P4501A2, xanthine oxidase, and N-acetyltransferase activities in humans. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 70, 121–125 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knutti R , RothweilerH, SchlatterC. Effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.21, 121–126 (1981).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaohua L , AbduljalilK, JameiM, JohnsonTN, Rostami-HodjeganA. A pregnancy physiologically based pharmacokinetic (p-PBPK) model for disposition of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.74, 873–885 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grosso LM , BrackenMB. Caffeine metabolism, genetics, and perinatal outcomes, a review of exposure assessment considerations during pregnancy. Ann. Epidemiol.15, 460–466 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RJ , RomittiPA, BurnsTL et al. National birth defects prevention study. caffeine, selected metabolic gene variants, and risk for neural tube defects. Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. 88, 560–569 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bech BH , AutrupH, NohrEA, HenriksenTB, OlsenJ. Stillbirth and slow metabolizers of caffeine, comparison by genotypes. Int. J. Epidemiol.35, 948–953 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raunio H , RautioA, GullsténH, PelkonenO. Polymorphisms of CYP2A6 and its practical consequences. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.52, 357–363 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abu-Bakar A , HakkolaJ, JuvonenR, Rahnasto-RillaM, RaunioH, LangMA. Function and regulation of the Cyp2a5/CYP2A6 genes in response to toxic insults in the liver. Curr. Drug Metab.14, 137–150 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dempsey D , JacobP, BenowitzNL. Accelerated metabolism of nicotine and cotinine in pregnant smokers. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.301, 594–598 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aagaard-Tillery K , SpongCY, ThomE et al. Pharmacogenomics of maternal tobacco use, metabolic gene polymorphisms and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Obstet. Gynecol. 115, 568–577 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H , TompkinsLM. CYP2B6, new insights into a historically overlooked cytochrome P450 isozyme. Curr. Drug Metab.9, 598–610 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanger UM , KleinK. Pharmacogenetics of cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6), advances on polymorphisms, mechanisms, and clinical relevance. Front. Genet.4, 24 (2013).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dickmann LJ , IsoherranenN. Quantitative prediction of CYP2B6 induction by estradiol during pregnancy, potential explanation for increased methadone clearance during pregnancy. Drug Metab. Dispos.41, 270–274 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koh KH , JurkovicS, YangK et al. Estradiol induces cytochrome P450 2B6 expression at high concentrations, implication in estrogen-mediated gene regulation in pregnancy. Biochem. Pharmacol. 84, 93–103 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogen DL , PerelJM, HelselJC et al. Pharmacologic evidence to support clinical decision making for peripartum methadone treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 225, 441–451 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chantarangsu S , CresseyTR, MahasirimongkolS et al. Influence of CYP2B6 polymorphisms on the persistence of plasma nevirapine concentrations following a single intra-partum dose for the prevention of mother to child transmission in HIV-infected Thai women. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 64, 1265–1273 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mo SL , ZhouZW, YangLP, WeiMQ, ZhouSF. New insights into the structural features and functional relevance of human cytochrome P450 2C9. Part I. Curr. Drug Metab.10, 1075–1126 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yerby MS , FrielPN, McCormickK et al. Pharmacokinetics of anticonvulsants in pregnancy, alterations in plasma protein binding. Epilepsy Res. 5, 223–228 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebert MF , MaX, NaraharisettiSB et al. Are we optimizing gestational diabetes treatment with glyburide? The pharmacologic basis for better clinical practice. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 85, 607–614 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamazaki H , ShimadaT. Progesterone and testosterone hydroxylation by cytochromes P450 2C19, 2C9, and 3A4 in human liver microsomes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.346, 161–169 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desta Z , ZhaoX, ShinJG, FlockhartDA. Clinical significance of the cytochrome P450 2C19 genetic polymorphism. Clin. Pharmacokinet.41, 913–958 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldwin RM , OhlssonS, PedersenRS et al. Increased omeprazole metabolism in carriers of the CYP2C19*17 allele; a pharmacokinetic study in healthy volunteers. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 65, 767–774 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGready R , StepniewskaK, EdsteinMD et al. The pharmacokinetics of atovaquone and proguanil in pregnant women with acute falciparum malaria. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 59, 545–552 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majithia R , JohnsonDA. Are proton pump inhibitors safe during pregnancy and lactation? evidence to date. Drugs72, 171–179 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madadi P , AvardD, KorenG. Pharmacogenetics of opioids for the treatment of acute maternal pain during pregnancy and lactation. Curr. Drug Metab.13, 721–727 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng J , ZhenY, MiksysS et al. Potential role of CYP2D6 in the central nervous system. Xenobiotica 43(11), 973–984 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu AM , IdleJR, HerraizT, KüpferA, GonzalezFJ. Screening for endogenous substrates reveals that CYP2D6 is a 5-methoxyindolethylamine O-demethylase. Pharmacogenetics13, 307–319 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yu AM , IdleJR, GonzalezFJ. Polymorphic cytochrome P450 2D6, humanized mouse model and endogenous substrates. Drug Metab. Rev.36, 243–277 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wadelius M , DarjE, FrenneG, RaneA. Induction of CYP2D6 in pregnancy. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.62, 400–407 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Högstedt S , LindbergB, RaneA. Increased oral clearance of metoprolol in pregnancy. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.24, 217–220 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Högstedt S , LindbergB, PengDR, RegårdhCG, RaneA. Pregnancy-induced increase in metoprolol metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.37, 688–692 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Högstedt S , RaneA. Plasma concentration–effect relationship of metoprolol during and after pregnancy. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.44, 243–246 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisner KL , PerelJM. Serum nortriptyline levels in nursing mothers and their infants. Am. J. Psychiatry148, 1234–1236 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisner KL , PerelJM, FindlingRL, HinnesRL. Nortriptyline and its hydroxymetabolites in breastfeeding mothers and newborns. Psychopharmacol. Bull.33, 249–251 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heikkinen T , EkbladU, PaloP, LaineK. Pharmacokinetics of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine in pregnancy and lactation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.73, 330–337 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sit DK , PerelJM, HelselJC, WisnerKL. Changes in antidepressant metabolism and dosing across pregnancy and early postpartum. J. Clin. Psychiatry69, 652–658 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ververs FF , VoorbijHA, ZwartsP et al. Effect of cytochrome P450 2D6 genotype on maternal paroxetine plasma concentrations during pregnancy. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 48, 677–683 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jornil J , JensenKG, LarsenF, LinnetK. Identification of cytochrome P450 isoforms involved in the metabolism of paroxetine and estimation of their importance for human paroxetine metabolism using a population-based simulator. Drug Metab. Dispos.38, 376–385 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu Y , CederbaumAI. CYP2E1 and oxidative liver injury by alcohol. Free Radic. Biol. Med.44, 723–738 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingelman-Sundberg M , SimSC, GomezA, Rodriguez-AntonaC. Influence of cytochrome P450 polymorphisms on drug therapies, pharmacogenetic, pharmacoepigenetic and clinical aspects. Pharmacol. Ther.116, 496–526 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones SM , BoobisAR, MooreGE, StanierPM. Expression of CYP2E1 during human fetal development, methylation of the CYP2E1 gene in human fetal and adult liver samples. Biochem. Pharmacol.43, 1876–1879 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu D , CederbaumAI. Induction of liver cytochrome P4502E1 by pyrazole and 4-methylpyrazole in neonatal rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.264, 1468–1473 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasheed A , HinesRN, McCarver-MayDG. Variation in induction of human placental CYP2E1, possible role in susceptibility to fetal alcohol syndrome? Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 144, 396–400 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• McCarver DG . ADH2 and CYP2E1 genetic polymorphisms, risk factors for alcohol-related birth defects. Drug Metab. Dispos.29, 562–565 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neafsey P , GinsbergG, HattisD, JohnsDO, GuytonKZ, SonawaneB. Genetic polymorphism in CYP2E1, population distribution of CYP2E1 activity. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev.12, 362–388 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimada T , YamazakiH, MimuraM, InuiY, GuengerichFP. Inter individual variations in human liver cytochrome P-450 enzymes involved in the oxidation of drugs, carcinogens and toxic chemicals, studies with liver microsomes of 30 Japanese and 30 Caucasians. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.270, 414–423 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paine MF , HartHL, LudingtonSS, HainingRL, RettieAE, ZeldinDC. The human intestinal cytochrome P450 “pie”. Drug Metab. Dispos.34, 880–886 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sim SC , EdwardsRJ, BoobisAR, Ingelman-SundbergM. CYP3A7 protein expression is high in a fraction of adult human livers and partially associated with the CYP3A7*1C allele. Pharmacogenet. Genomics15, 625–631 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elens L , van Gelder T, Hesselink DA, Haufroid V, van Schaik RH. CYP3A4*22, promising newly identified CYP3A4 variant allele for personalizing pharmacotherapy. Pharmacogenomics14, 47–62 (2013).
   Google Scholar
• Lamba V , PanettaJC, StromS, SchuetzEG. Genetic predictors of inter individual variability in hepatic CYP3A4 expression. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.332, 1088–1099 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein K , ZangerUM. Pharmacogenomics of cytochrome P450 3A4, recent progress toward the “missing heritability” problem. Front. Genet.4, 12 (2013).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang J , ZhangX, LiuL, TongW. Value of CYP3A5 genotyping on determining initial dosages of tacrolimus for Chinese renal transplant recipients. Transplant. Proc.42, 3459–3464 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Waterschoot RA , SchinkelAH. A critical analysis of the interplay between cytochrome P450 3A and P-glycoprotein, recent insights from knockout and transgenic mice. Pharmacol. Rev.63, 390–410 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papageorgiou I , GrepperS, UnadkatJD. Induction of hepatic CYP3A enzymes by pregnancy-related hormones, studies in human hepatocytes and hepatic cell lines. Drug Metab. Dispos.41, 281–290 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prevost RR , AklSA, WhybrewWD, SibaiBM. Oral nifedipine pharmacokinetics in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Pharmacotherapy12, 174–177 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haas DM , QuinneySK, ClayJM et al.; Obstetric-Fetal Pharmacology Research Units Network. Nifedipine pharmacokinetics are influenced by CYP3A5 genotype when used as a preterm labor tocolytic. Am. J. Perinatol.30, 275–281 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acosta EP , BardeguezA, ZorrillaCD et al. Pharmacokinetics of saquinavir plus low-dose ritonavir in human immunodeficiency virus-infected pregnant women. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48, 430–436 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acosta EP , ZorrillaC, van Dyke R et al. Pharmacokinetics of saquinavir-SGC in HIV-infected pregnant women. HIV Clin. Trials2, 460–465 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirt D , TreluyerJM, JullienV et al. Pregnancy-related effects on nelfinavir-M8 pharmacokinetics, a population study with 133 women. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50, 2079–2086 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng S , EasterlingTR, UmansJG et al. Pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus during pregnancy. Ther. Drug Monit. 34, 660–670 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohalmy K , VrzalR. Regulation of phase II biotransformation enzymes by steroid hormones. Curr. Drug Metab.12, 104–123 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meech R , MinersJO, LewisBC, MackenziePI. The glycosidation of xenobiotics and endogenous compounds, versatility and redundancy in the UDP glycosyltransferase super family. Pharmacol. Ther.134, 200–218 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeong H , ChoiS, SongJW, ChenH, FischerJH. Regulation of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1 by progesterone and its impact on labetalol elimination. Xenobiotica38, 62–75 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugatani J . Function, genetic polymorphism, and transcriptional regulation of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet.28, 83–92 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen H , YangK, ChoiS, FischerJH, JeongH. Up-regulation of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A4 by 17beta-estradiol, a potential mechanism of increased lamotrigine elimination in pregnancy. Drug Metab. Dispos.37, 1841–1847 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran TA , LeppikIE, BlesiK, SathanandanST, RemmelR. Lamotrigine clearance during pregnancy. Neurology59, 251–255 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Haan GJ , EdelbroekP, SegersJ et al. Gestation-induced changes in lamotrigine pharmacokinetics, a monotherapy study. Neurology 63, 571–573 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennell PB , NewportDJ, StoweZN, HelmersSL, MontgomeryJQ, HenryTR. The impact of pregnancy and childbirth on the metabolism of lamotrigine. Neurology62, 292–295 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reimers A , ØstbyL, StuenI, SundbyE. Expression of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A4 in human placenta at term. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet.35, 79–82 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennell PB , PengL, NewportDJ et al. Lamotrigine in pregnancy, clearance, therapeutic drug monitoring, and seizure frequency. Neurology 70, 2130–2136 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fotopoulou C , KretzR, BauerS et al. Prospectively assessed changes in lamotrigine-concentration in women with epilepsy during pregnancy, lactation and the neonatal period. Epilepsy Res. 85, 60–64 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordmo E , AronsenL, WaslandK, SmåbrekkeL, VorrenS. Severe apnea in an infant exposed to lamotrigine in breast milk. Ann. Pharmacother.43, 1893–1897 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehmer U , VogelA, SchütteJK, KroneB, MannsMP, StrassburgCP. Variation of hepatic glucuronidation: novel functional polymorphisms of the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase UGT1A4. Hepatology39, 970–977 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saeki M , SaitoY, JinnoH et al. Genetic variations and haplotypes of UGT1A4 in a Japanese population. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet. 20, 144–151 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Madadi P , ItoS. Perinatal exposure to maternal lamotrigine, clinical considerations for the mother and child. Can. Fam. Physician56, 1132–1134 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanca Sánchez M , HerranzJL, LenoC et al. UGT2B7-161C>T polymorphism is associated with lamotrigine concentration-to-dose ratio in a multivariate study. Ther. Drug Monit.32, 177–184 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agúndez JA . Polymorphisms of human N-acetyltransferases and cancer risk. Curr. Drug Metab.9, 520–531 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemke LE , McQueenCA. Acetylation and its role in the mutagenicity of the antihypertensive agent hydralazine. Drug Metab. Dispos.23, 559–565 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alfirevic A , AlfirevicZ, PirmohamedM. Pharmacogenetics in reproductive and perinatal medicine. Pharmacogenomics11, 65–79 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zusterzeel PL , te Morsche RH, Raijmakers MT et al.N-acetyl-transferase phenotype and risk for preeclampsia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.193, 797–802 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RJ , RomittiPA, BurnsTL et al. Caffeine, selected metabolic gene variants, and risk for neural tube defects. Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. 88, 560–569 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young AM , AllenCE, AudusKL. Efflux transporters of the human placenta. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.55, 125–132 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceckova-Novotna M , PavekP, StaudF. P-glycoprotein in the placenta, expression, localization, regulation and function. Reprod. Toxicol.22, 400–410 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vähäkangas K , MyllynenP. Drug transporters in the human blood-placental barrier. Br. J. Pharmacol.158, 665–678 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staud F , CervenyL, CeckovaM. Pharmacotherapy in pregnancy; effect of ABC and SLC transporters on drug transport across the placenta and fetal drug exposure. J. Drug Target.20, 736–763 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fellay J , MarzoliniC, MeadenER et al. Response to antiretroviral treatment in HIV-1-infected individuals with allelic variants of the multidrug resistance transporter 1, a pharmacogenetics study. Lancet 359, 30–36 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwab M , EichelbaumM, FrommMF. Genetic polymorphisms of the human MDR1 drug transporter. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol.43, 285–307 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cascorbi I . Role of pharmacogenetics of ATP-binding cassette transporters in the pharmacokinetics of drugs. Pharmacol. Ther.112, 457–473 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalliokoski A , NiemiM. Impact of OATP transporters on pharmacokinetics. Br. J. Pharmacol.158, 693–705 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebert MF , EasterlingTR, KirbyB et al. Effects of pregnancy on CYP3A and P-glycoprotein activities as measured by disposition of midazolam and digoxin, a University of Washington specialized center of research study. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 84, 248–253 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sistonen J , MadadiP, RossCJ et al. Prediction of codeine toxicity in infants and their mothers using a novel combination of maternal genetic markers. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 91, 692–699 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eyal S , EasterlingTR, CarrD et al. Pharmacokinetics of metformin during pregnancy. Drug Metab. Dispos. 38, 833–840 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bacq Y . Liver diseases unique to pregnancy, a 2010 update. Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol.35, 182–193 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davit-Spraul A , GonzalesE, BaussanC, JacqueminE. The spectrum of liver diseases related to ABCB4 gene mutations, pathophysiology and clinical aspects. Semin. Liver Dis.30, 134–146 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yacovino LL , AleksunesLM. Endocrine and metabolic regulation of renal drug transporters. J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol.26, 407–421 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pauli-Magnus C , MeierPJ. Hepatobiliary transporters and drug-induced cholestasis. Hepatology44, 778–787 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stieger B , GeierA. Genetic variations of bile salt transporters as predisposing factors for drug-induced cholestasis, intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy and therapeutic response of viral hepatitis. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol.7, 411–425 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

▪ Websites

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Data and Statistics. Use of Medications in Pregnant Women. www.cdc.gov/pregnancy/meds/data.html
   Google Scholar
• Endotext: The Free Complete Source for Clinical Endocrinology. www.endotext.org/female/female13/female13.htm
   Google Scholar
• pA2 online. © Copyright 2004 The British Pharmacological Society. www.pa2online.org/Vol1Issue4abst225P.html
   Google Scholar
• The Human Cytochrome P450 (CYP) Allele Nomenclature Database. www.cypalleles.ki.se/cyp1a2.htm
   Google Scholar