Topical Treatment in Pain Medicine: From Ancient Remedies to Modern Usage

References

• Magner LN . A History of Medicine . Marcel Dekker , NY, USA ( 1992 ).
   Google Scholar
• Porter R . The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: a Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present . Fontana Press , London, UK ( 1999 ).
   Google Scholar
• Aboelsoud NH . Herbal medicine in ancient Egypt . J. Med. Plant Res.4 ( 2 ), 082 – 086 ( 2010 ).
   Google Scholar
• Majno G . The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World . Harvard University Press , Cambridge, MA, USA ( 1975 ).
   Google Scholar
• Barr A , KnightT , AndrewsM , AlexanderV . Traditional Bush Medicines: An Aboriginal Pharmacopoeia . Greenhouse Publications , Melbourne, Australia ( 1988 ).
   Google Scholar
• Pickrell J . Messages from Mungo . Aust. Geographic123 ( November–December ), 50 – 63 ( 2014 ).
   Google Scholar
• Augustine SJ . Oral histories and oral traditions . In : Aboriginal Oral Traditions: Theory, Practice, Ethics . HulanR , ElgenbrodR ( Eds ). Fernwood , Black Point NSW, Australia ( 2008 ).
   Google Scholar
• Mills C , CarrollAR , QuinnRJ . Acutangulosides A-F, monodesmosidic saponins from the bark of Barringtonia acutangula . J. Nat. Prod.68 ( 3 ), 311 – 318 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamedi A , ZarshenasMM , SohrabpourM , ZargaranA . Herbal medicinal oils in traditional Persian medicine . Pharm. Biol.51 ( 9 ), 1208 – 1218 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen W , LuoYF , LiuJP . Topical herbal medicine for treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials . Forsch Komplementmed.18 ( 3 ), 134 – 145 ( 2011 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Silva V , El-MetwallyA , ErnstE , LewithG , MacfarlaneGJ . Arthritis Research UK Working Group on Complementary & Alternative Medicines. Evidence for the efficacy of complementary and alternative medicines in the management of osteoarthritis: a systematic review . Rheumatology (Oxford)50 ( 5 ), 11 – 20 ( 2011 ).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagnier JJ , Van TulderMW , BermanB , BombardierC . Herbal medicine for low back pain: a Cochrane review . Spine32 ( 1 ), 82 – 92 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Y , WangMW . Botanical drugs: challenges and opportunities: contribution to Linnaeus Memorial Symposium 2007 . Life Sci.82 ( 9–10 ), 445 – 449 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culpepper N . Culpepper’s Herbal . Nicholson and Co. , Halifax, UK ( 1824 ).
   Google Scholar
• Djouhri L , LawsonSN . Abeta-fiber nociceptive primary afferent neurons: a review of incidence and properties in relation to other afferent A-fiber neurons in mammals . Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev.46 ( 2 ), 131 – 145 ( 2004 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Provitera V , NolanoM , PaganoA , CaporasoG , StancanelliA , SantoroL . Myelinated nerve endings in human skin . Muscle Nerve35 ( 6 ), 767 – 775 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waxman SG , ZamponiGW . Regulating excitability of peripheral afferents: emerging ion channel targets . Nat. Neurosci.17 ( 2 ), 153 – 163 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler W , KirchhoffC , ReehPW , HandwerkerHO . Excitation of cutaneous afferent nerve endings in vitro by a combination of inflammatory mediators and conditioning effect of substance P . Exp. Brain Res.91 ( 3 ), 467 – 476 ( 1992 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulais N , MiseryL . The epidermis: a sensory tissue . Eur. J. Dermatol.18 ( 2 ), 119 – 127 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumpkin EA , CaterinaMJ . Mechanisms of sensory transduction in the skin . Nature445 ( 7130 ), 858 – 865 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W , ShiX , WangLet al. Epidermal adrenergic signaling contributes to inflammation and pain sensitization in a rat model of complex regional pain syndrome . Pain154 ( 8 ), 1224 – 1236 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li WW , GuoTZ , LiXQ , KingeryWS , ClarkJD . Fracture induces keratinocyte activation, proliferation, and expression of pro-nociceptive inflammatory mediators . Pain151 ( 3 ), 843 – 852 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birklein F , DrummondPD , LiWet al. Activation of cutaneous immune responses in complex regional pain syndrome . J. Pain15 ( 5 ), 485 – 495 ( 2015 ).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Premkumar LS , AboojM . TRP channels and analgesia . Life Sci.92 ( 8–9 ), 415 – 424 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takashima Y , DanielsRL , KnowltonW , TengJ , LimanER , MckemyDD . Diversity in the neural circuitry of cold sensing revealed by genetic axonal labeling of transient receptor potential melastatin 8 neurons . J. Neurosci.27 ( 51 ), 14147 – 14157 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasner G , SchattschneiderJ , BinderA , BaronR . Topical menthol: a human model for cold pain by activation and sensitization of C nociceptors . Brain127 ( Pt 5 ), 1159 – 1171 ( 2004 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Proudfoot CJ , GarryEM , CottrellDFet al. Analgesia mediated by the TRPM8 cold receptor in chronic neuropathic pain . Curr. Biol.16 ( 16 ), 1591 – 1605 ( 2006 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abe J , HosokawaH , SawadaY , MatsumuraK , KobayashiS . Ca2+-dependent PKC activation mediates menthol-induced desensitization of transient receptor potential M8 . Neurosci. Lett.397 ( 1–2 ), 140 – 144 ( 2006 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coggeshall RE , ZhouS , CarltonSM . Opioid receptors on peripheral sensory axons . Brain Res.764 ( 1–2 ), 126 – 132 ( 1997 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonijevic I , MousaSA , SchäferM , SteinC . Perineurial defect and peripheral opioid analgesia in inflammation . J. Neurosci.15 ( 1 Pt 1 ), 165 – 172 ( 1995 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlton SM , CoggeshallRE . Inflammation-induced changes in peripheral glutamate receptor populations . Brain Res.820 ( 1–2 ), 63 – 70 ( 1999 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du J , ZhouS , CoggeshallRE , CarltonSM . N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced excitation and sensitization of normal and inflamed nociceptors . Neuroscience118 ( 2 ), 547 – 562 ( 2003 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuzuki K , KondoE , FukuokaTet al. Differential regulation of P2X(3) mRNA expression by peripheral nerve injury in intact and injured neurons in the rat sensory ganglia . Pain91 ( 3 ), 351 – 360 ( 2001 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maruo K , YamamotoH , YamamotoSet al. Modulation of P2X receptors via adrenergic pathways in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons after sciatic nerve injury . Pain120 ( 1–2 ), 106 – 112 ( 2006 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meisner JG , WaldronJB , SawynokJ . α1-Adrenergic receptors augment P2X3 receptor-mediated nociceptive responses in the uninjured state . J. Pain8 ( 7 ), 556 – 562 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummond ES , DawsonLF , FinchPM , BennettGJ , DrummondPD . Increased expression of cutaneous α1-adrenoceptors after chronic constriction injury in rats . J. Pain15 ( 2 ), 188 – 196 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummond PD , DrummondES , DawsonLFet al. Upregulation of α1-adrenoceptors on cutaneous nerve fibres after partial sciatic nerve ligation and in complex regional pain syndrome type II . Pain155 ( 3 ), 606 – 616 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu M , WoodJN . The roles of sodium channels in nociception: implications for mechanisms of neuropathic pain . Pain Med.12 ( Suppl. 3 ), S93 – S99 ( 2011 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sheets PL , JareckiBW , CumminsTR . Lidocaine reduces the transition to slow inactivation in Na(v)1.7 voltage-gated sodium channels . Br. J. Pharmacol.164 ( 2b ), 19 – 30 ( 2011 ).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baroli B . Penetration of nanoparticles and nanomaterials in the skin: fiction or reality?J. Pharm. Sci.99 ( 1 ), 21 – 50 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elias PM . Epidermal lipids, barrier function, and desquamation . J. Invest. Dermatol.80 ( Suppl. 1 ), 44s – 49s ( 1983 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nemes Z , SteinertPM . Bricks and mortar of the epidermal barrier . Exp. Mol. Med.31 ( 1 ), 5 – 19 ( 1999 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barry BW . Breaching the skin’s barrier to drugs . Nat. Biotechnol.22 ( 2 ), 165 – 167 ( 2004 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loudon GM . Organic Chemistry (4th Edition) . Oxford University Press , NY, USA , 317 ( 2002 ).
   Google Scholar
• Jones M . The history of pluronic lecithin organogel: an interview with Marty Jones . Int. J. Pharm. Compd.7 ( 3 ), 130 – 131 ( 2003 ).
   Google Scholar
• Willimann H , WaldeP , LuisiPL , GazzanigaA , StroppoloF . Lecithin organogel as matrix for transdermal transport of drugs . J. Pharm. Sci.81 ( 9 ), 871 – 874 ( 1992 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bangham AD , HorneRW . Negative staining of phospholipids and their structural modification by surface-active agents as observed in the electron microscope . J. Mol. Biol.8 ( 5 ), 660 – 668 ( 1964 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmid MH , KortinHC . Therapeutic progress with topical liposome drugs for skin disease . Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.18 ( 3 ), 335 – 342 ( 1996 ).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dreher F , WaldeP , LuisiPL , EisnerP . Human skin irritation studies of a lecithin microemulsion gel and of lecithin liposomes . Skin Pharmacol.9 ( 2 ), 124 – 129 ( 1996 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• El Maghraby GM , BarryBW , WilliamsAC . Liposomes and skin from drug delivery to model membranes . Eur. J. Pharm. Sci.34 ( 4–5 ), 203 – 222 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayachandra Babu R , RavisWR , DuranSHet al. Enhancement of transdermal delivery of phenylbutazone from liposomal gel formulations through deer skin . J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther.32 ( 4 ), 388 – 392 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trommer H , NeubertRH . Overcoming the stratum corneum: the modulation of skin penetration: a review . Skin Pharmacol. Physiol.19 ( 2 ), 106 – 121 ( 2006 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anitescu M , BenzonHT , ArgoffCE . Advances in topical analgesics . Curr. Opin. Anaesthesiol.26 ( 5 ), 555 – 561 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassani AS , BanovD , KlehmanPA . Evaluation of the percutaneous absorption of promethazine hydrochloride, in vitro, using the human ex vivo skin model . Int. J. Pharm. Compd.12 ( 3 ), 270 – 273 ( 2008 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holt M . Evaluation of the in vitro human trunk skin percutaneous absorption of ketamine HCl, gabapentin, clonidine HCl and baclofen using the Franz skin finite dose model . Presented at : 4th International Science of Nutrition in Medicine Conference . Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia , 3 May 2014 .
   Google Scholar
• Goossens RA . Allergic contact dermatitis from the vehicle components of topical pharmaceutical products . Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am.34 ( 3 ), 663 – 670 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis MD . Unusual patterns in contact dermatitis: medicaments . Dermatol. Clin.27 ( 3 ), 289 – 297 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argoff CE . Topical analgesics in the management of acute and chronic pain . Mayo Clin. Proc.88 ( 2 ), 195 – 205 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argoff CE . Topical analgesics in the management of acute and chronic pain: introduction . Postgrad. Med.125 ( 4 Suppl. 1 ), 3 – 6 ( 2013 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Leon-Casasola OA . Multimodal approaches to the management of neuropathic pain: the role of topical analgesia . J. Pain Symptom. Manage.33 ( 3 ), 356 – 364 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawynok J . Topical analgesics for neuropathic pain: preclinical exploration, clinical validation, future development . Eur. J. Pain18 ( 4 ), 465 – 481 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zur E . Topical treatment of neuropathic pain using compounded medications . Clin. J. Pain30 ( 1 ), 73 – 91 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence BM . The story of India’s mint oils and menthol . Perfumer & Flavorist38 ( 1 ), 26 – 35 ( 2013 ).
   Google Scholar
• Graves R . The Greek Myths (Revised Edition) . Penguin , London, UK , 31d (p121); 31d note 6 (p124) ( 1960 ).
   Google Scholar
• Kamatou GP , VermaakI , ViljoenAM , LawrenceBM . Menthol: a simple monoterpene with remarkable biological properties . Phytochemistry96 , 15 – 25 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galeotti N , Di Cesare MannelliL , MazzantiG , BartoliniA , GhelardiniC . Menthol: a natural analgesic compound . Neurosci. Lett.322 ( 3 ), 145 – 148 ( 2002 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haeseler G , MaueD , GrosskreutzJet al. Voltage-dependent block of neuronal and skeletal muscle sodium channels by thymol and menthol . Eur. J. Anaesthesiol.19 ( 8 ), 571 – 579 ( 2002 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel T , IshiujiY , YosipovitchG . Menthol: a refreshing look at this ancient compound . J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.57 ( 5 ), 873 – 878 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yosipovitch G , SzolarC , HuiXY , MaibachH . Effect of topically applied menthol on thermal, pain and itch sensations and biophysical properties of the skin . Arch. Dermatol. Res.288 ( 5–6 ), 245 – 248 ( 1996 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Işcan G , KirimerN , KürkcüoğluM , BaşerKH , DemirciF . Antimicrobial screening of Mentha piperita essential oils . J. Agric. Food Chem.50 ( 14 ), 3943 – 3946 ( 2002 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams AC , BarryBW . Penetration enhancers . Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev.56 ( 5 ), 603 – 618 ( 2004 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornwell PA , BarryBW , StoddartCP , BouwstraJA . Wide-angle x-ray diffraction of human stratum corneum: effects of hydration and terpene enhancer treatment . J. Pharm. Pharmacol.46 ( 12 ), 938 – 950 ( 1994 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cliff MA , GreenBG . Sensory irritation and coolness produced by menthol: evidence for selective desensitization of irritation . Physiol. Behav.56 ( 5 ), 1021 – 1029 ( 1994 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder A , StengelM , KiebeO , WasnerG , BaronR . Topical high-concentration (40%) menthol-somatosensory profile of a human surrogate pain model . J. Pain.12 ( 7 ), 764 – 773 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasner G , BaronR . [ Pain prevention allows patients with chronic pruritus to itch from central sensitivity for itching] . Schmarz19 ( 4 ), 324 – 327 ( 2005 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Galeotti N , GhelardiniC , MannelliL , MazzantiG , BaghiroliL , BartoliniA . Local anaesthetic activity of (+)- and (‐)-menthol . Planta Med.67 ( 2 ), 174 – 176 ( 2001 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaudioso C , HaoJ , Martin-EauclaireMF , GabriacM , DelmasP . Menthol pain relief through cumulative inactivation of voltage-gated sodium channels . Pain153 ( 2 ), 473 – 484 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higashi Y , KiuchiT , FurutaK . Efficacy and safety profile of a topical methyl salicylate and menthol patch in adult patients with mild to moderate muscle strain: a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled, multicenter study . Clin. Ther.32 ( 1 ), 34 – 43 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundstrup E , JakobsenMD , BrandtMet al. Acute effect of topical menthol on chronic pain in slaughterhouse workers with carpal tunnel syndrome: triple-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial . Rehabil. Res. Pract.2014 , 310913 ( 2014 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Topp R , BroskyJA , PieschelD . The effect of either topical menthol or a placebo on functioning and knee pain among patients with knee OA . J. Geriatr. Phys. Ther.36 ( 2 ), 92 – 99 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Topp R , LedfordER , JacksDE . Topical menthol, ice, peripheral blood flow, and perceived discomfort . J. Athl. Train.48 ( 2 ), 220 – 225 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bharate SS , BharateSB . Modulation of thermoreceptor TRPM8 by cooling compounds . ACS Chem. Neurosci.3 ( 4 ), 248 – 267 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry L , DickauR , ZarrilloSet al. Starch fossils and the domestication and dispersal of chili peppers (Capsicum spp. L.) in the Americas . Science315 ( 5814 ), 986 – 988 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher M , PasvankasG . Topical capsaicin formulations in the management of neuropathic pain . Prog. Drug Res.68 , 105 – 128 ( 2014 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Appendino G , SzallasiA . Euphorbium: modern research on its active principle, resiniferatoxin, revives an ancient medicine . Life Sci.60 ( 10 ), 681 – 696 ( 1997 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geoffroy M . Traite de la matiere médicale, ou de l’histoire des vertus, du choix et de l’usage des remedes simples . Desaint & Saillant , Paris, France ( 1757 ).
   Google Scholar
• Sarwa KK , DasPJ , MazumderB . A nanovesicle topical formulation of Bhut jolokia (hottest capsicum): a potential anti-arthritic medicine . Expert Opin. Drug Deliv.11 ( 5 ), 661 – 676 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guinness World Records . Guinness World Records 2007 . Guinness World Records , New York, USA ( 2006 ).
   Google Scholar
• Anand P , BleyK . Topical capsaicin for pain management: therapeutic potential and mechanisms of action of the new high-concentration capsaicin 8% patch . Br. J. Anaesth.107 ( 4 ), 490 – 502 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peppin JF , PappagalloM . Capsaicinoids in the treatment of neuropathic pain. A review . Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord.7 ( 1 ), 22 – 32 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith H , BrooksJR . Capsaicin-based therapies for pain control . Prog. Drug. Res.68 , 129 – 146 ( 2014 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bode AM , DongZ . The two faces of capsaicin . Cancer Res.71 ( 8 ), 2809 – 2814 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brederson JD , KymPR , SzallasiA . Targeting TRP channels for pain relief . Eur. J. Pharmacol.16 ( 1–3 ), 61 – 76 ( 2013 ).
   Google Scholar
• Derry S , MooreRA . Topical capsaicin (low concentration) for chronic neuropathic pain in adults . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.9 , CD010111 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derry S , Sven-RiceA , ColeP , TanT , MooreRA . Topical capsaicin (high concentration) for chronic neuropathic pain in adults . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.2 , CD007393 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Ansary MM . History of pain relief by ancient Egyptians . Middle East J. Anaesthesiol.10 ( 2 ), 99 – 105 ( 1989 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bartels EM , SwaddlingJ , HarrisonAP . An ancient Greek pain remedy for athletes . Pain Pract.6 ( 3 ), 212 – 218 ( 2006 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrison AP , HansenSH , BartelsEM . Transdermal opioid patches for pain treatment in ancient Greece . Pain Pract.12 ( 8 ), 620 – 625 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham T , GrocottP , ProbstS , WanklynS , DawsonJ , GethinG . How are topical opioids used to manage painful cutaneous lesions in palliative care? A critical review . Pain154 ( 10 ), 1920 – 1928 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zöllner C , MousaS , KlingerA , FörsterM , SchäferM . Topical fentanyl in a randomized, double-blind study in patients with corneal damage . Clin. J. Pain24 ( 8 ), 690 – 698 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farley P . Should topical opioid analgesics be regarded as effective and safe when applied to chronic cutaneous lesions?J. Pharm. Pharmacol.63 ( 6 ), 747 – 756 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen J . Topical opioids for pain #185 . J. Palliat. Med.12 ( 4 ), 380 – 381 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twillman RK , LongTD , CathersTA , MuellerDW . Treatment of painful skin ulcers with topical opioids . J. Pain Symptom Manage.17 ( 4 ), 288 – 292 ( 1999 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerchietti LC , NaviganteAH , KörteMWet al. Potential utility of the peripheral analgesic properties of morphine in stomatitis-related pain: a pilot study . Pain105 ( 1–2 ), 265 – 273 ( 2003 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leppert W , KrajnikM , WordliczekJ . Delivery systems of opioid analgesics for pain relief: a review . Curr. Pharm. Des.19 ( 41 ), 7271 – 7293 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher RE , ArndtDR , HuntKL . Analgesic effects of topical methadone: a report of four cases . Clin. J. Pain21 ( 2 ), 190 – 192 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballas SK . Treatment of painful sickle cell leg ulcers with topical opioids . Blood99 ( 3 ), 1096 ( 2002 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller JL . Love potions and the ointment of witches: historical aspects of the nightshade alkaloids . J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol.36 ( 6 ), 617 – 627 ( 1998 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chidiac EJ , KaddoumRN , FuleihanSF . Mandragora: anesthetic of the ancients . Anesth. Analg.115 ( 6 ), 1437 – 1441 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart A . Wicked Plants: the Weed that Killed Lincoln’s Mother and Other Related Botanical Atrocities . Algonquin Books , Chapel Hill, NC, USA ( 2009 ).
   Google Scholar
• Thompson CJS . The Mystic Mandrake . Rider , London, UK , 146 ( 1934 ).
   Google Scholar
• Aziz E , NathanB , MckeeverJ . Anesthetic and analgesic practices in Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine . Am. J. Chin. Med.28 ( 1 ), 147 – 151 ( 2000 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee MR . Solanaceae III: henbane, hags and Hawley Harvey Crippen . J. R. Coll. Physicians Edinb.36 ( 4 ), 366 – 373 ( 2006 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amm M , HolubarK . [ “Coca-Koller” and his friends. On the 140th birthday of the Vienna Jewish trio: Carl Koller (1857–1944), Sigmund Lustgarten (1857–1911) and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)] . Wien Klin. Wochenschr.109 ( 5 ), 170 – 175 ( 1997 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera MA , AufderheideAC , CartmellLW , TorresCM , LangsjoenO . Antiquity of coca-leaf chewing in the south central Andes: a 3,000 year archaeological record of coca-leaf chewing from northern Chile . J. Psychoactive Drugs37 ( 4 ), 455 – 458 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prendergast M . For God, Country and Coca-Cola: the Unathorized History of the Great American Soft Drink and the Company that Makes It . Pheonix , London, UK ( 1994 ).
   Google Scholar
• Garnock-Jones KP , KeatingGM . Lidocaine 5% medicated plaster: a review of its use in postherpetic neuralgia . Drugs69 ( 15 ), 2149 – 2165 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mick G , Correa-IllanesG . Topical pain management with the 5% lidocaine medicated plaster: a review . Curr. Med. Res. Opin.28 ( 6 ), 937 – 951 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff RF , BalaMM , WestwoodM , KesselsAG , KleijnenJ . 5% lidocaine-medicated plaster vs other relevant interventions and placebo for post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN): a systematic review . Acta. Neurol. Scand.123 ( 5 ), 295 – 309 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khaliq W , AlamS , PuriN . Topical lidocaine for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.18 ( 2 ), CD004846 ( 2007 ).
   Google Scholar
• Desai C , WoodFM , SchugSA , ParsonsRW , FridlenderC , SunderlandVB . Effectiveness of a topical local anaesthetic spray as analgesia for dressing changes: a double-blinded randomised pilot trial comparing an emulsion with an aqueous lidocaine formulation . Burns40 ( 1 ), 106 – 112 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanai A , KumakiC , NikiY , SuzukiA , TazawaT , OkamotoH . Efficacy of a metered-dose 8% lidocaine pump spray for patients with post-herpetic neuralgia . Pain Med.10 ( 5 ), 902 – 909 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki A , KanaiA . 8% lidocaine pump spray relieves pain associated with peripheral blood flow disorders . Clin. J. Pain.25 ( 2 ), 107 – 110 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gammaitoni AR , AlvarezNA , GalerBS . Pharmacokinetics and safety of continuously applied lidocaine patches 5% . Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm.59 ( 22 ), 2215 – 2220 ( 2002 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutwak N , HowlandMA , GambettaR , DillC . Even ‘safe’ medications need to be administered with care . BMJ Case Rep. ( Jan 2 ), bcr2012006204 ( 2013 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haroutiunian S , DrennanDA , LipmanAG . Topical NSAID therapy for musculoskeletal pain . Pain Med.11 ( 4 ), 535 – 549 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King RB . Topical aspirin in chloroform and the relief of pain due to herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia . Arch. Neurol.50 ( 10 ), 1046 – 1053 ( 1993 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rainsford KD . Anti-inflammatory drugs in the 21st century . In : Inflammation in the Pathogenesis of Chronic Diseases: the COX-2 Controversy . HarrisRE ( Ed. ). Springer , NY, USA , 3 – 27 ( 2007 ).
   Google Scholar
• Klinge SA , SawyerGA . Effectiveness and safety of topical versus oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a comprehensive review . Phys. Sportsmed.41 ( 2 ), 64 – 74 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balmaceda CM . Evolving guidelines in the use of topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of osteoarthritis . BMC Musculoskelet. Disord.15 , 27 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herndon CM . Topical delivery of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis . J. Pain Palliat. Care Pharmacother.26 ( 1 ), 18 – 23 ( 2012 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mcpherson ML , CiminoNM . Topical NSAID formulations . Pain Med.13 ( Suppl. 1 ), S35 – S39 ( 2013 ).
   Google Scholar
• Arnstein PM . Evolution of topical NSAIDs in the guidelines for treatment of osteoarthritis in elderly patients . Drugs Aging29 ( 7 ), 523 – 531 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenach JC , GebhartGF . Intrathecal amitriptyline acts as an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist in the presence of inflammatory hyperalgesia in rats . Anesthesiology83 ( 5 ), 1046 – 1054 ( 1995 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray AM , PacheDM , SewellRD . Do alpha2-adrenoceptors play an integral role in the antinociceptive mechanism of action of antidepressant compounds?Eur. J. Pharmacol.378 ( 2 ), 161 – 168 ( 1999 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traiffort E , PollardH , MoreauJet al. Pharmacological characterization and autoradiographic localization of histamine H2 receptors in human brain identified with [125I]iodoaminopotentidine . J. Neurochem.59 ( 1 ), 290 – 299 ( 1992 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duale C , DaveauJ , CardotJM , Boyer-GrandA , SchoefflerP , DubrayC . Cutaneous amitriptyline in human volunteers: differential effects on the components of sensory information . Anesthesiology108 ( 4 ), 714 – 721 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho KY , HuhBK , WhiteWD , YehCC , MillerEJ . Topical amitriptyline versus lidocaine in the treatment of neuropathic pain . Clin. J. Pain.24 ( 1 ), 51 – 55 ( 2006 ).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopsky DJ , HesselinkJM . High doses of topical amitriptyline in neuropathic pain: two cases and literature review . Pain Pract.12 ( 2 ), 148 – 153 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopsky DJ , Keppel HesselinkJM . Multimodal stepped care approach involving topical analgesics for severe intractable neuropathic pain in CRPS type 1: a case report . Case Rep. Med.2011 , 319750 ( 2011 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nyirjesy P , Lev-SagieA , MathewL , CulhaneJF . Topical amitriptyline-baclofen cream for the treatment of provoked vestibulodynia . J. Low Genit. Tract Dis.13 ( 4 ), 230 – 236 ( 2009 ).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehman JS , SciallisGF . Effective use of topical amitriptyline hydrochloride 2.5% and ketamine hydrochloride 0.5% for analgesia in refractory proctodynia . J. Drugs Dermatol.7 ( 9 ), 887 – 889 ( 2008 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lynch ME , ClarkAJ , SawynokJ , SullivanMJ . Topical 2% amitriptyline and 1% ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial . Anesthesiology103 ( 1 ), 140 – 146 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch ME , ClarkAJ , SawynokJ , SullivanMJ . Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study . J. Pain6 ( 10 ), 644 – 649 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mccleane G . Topical application of doxepin hydrochloride, capsaicin and a combination of both produces analgesia in chronic human neuropathic pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study . Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.49 ( 6 ), 574 – 579 ( 2000 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poterucha TJ , MurphySL , RhoRHet al. Topical amitriptyline-ketamine for treatment of rectal, genital, and perineal pain and discomfort . Pain Physician15 ( 6 ), 485 – 488 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poterucha TJ , WeissWT , WarndahlRAet al. Topical amitriptyline combined with ketamine for the treatment of erythromelalgia: a retrospective study of 36 patients at Mayo Clinic . J. Drugs Dermatol.12 ( 3 ), 308 – 310 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zell-Kanter M , ToerneTS , SpiegelK , NegruszA . Doxepin toxicity in a child following topical administration . Ann. Pharmacother.34 ( 3 ), 328 – 329 ( 2000 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis KD , TreedeRD , RajaSN , MeyerRA , CampbellJN . Topical application of clonidine relieves hyperalgesia in patients with sympathetically maintained pain . Pain47 ( 3 ), 309 – 317 ( 1991 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell CM , KipnesMS , StouchBCet al. Randomized control trial of topical clonidine for treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy . Pain153 ( 9 ), 1815 – 1823 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodge D . The history of the pharmacology and cloning of ionotropic glutamate receptors and the development of idiosyncratic nomenclature . Neuropharmacology56 ( 1 ), 6 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gammaitoni A , GallagherRM , Weiz-BosnaM . Topical ketamine gel: possible role in treating neuropathic pain . Pain Med.1 ( 1 ), 97 – 100 ( 2000 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopsky DJ , Keppel HesselinkJM , BhaskarA , HaritonG , RomanenkoV , CasaleR . Analgesic effects of topical ketamine . Minerva Anestesiol.81 ( 4 ), 440 – 449 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawynok J . Topical and peripheral ketamine as an analgesic . Anesth. Analg.119 ( 1 ), 170 – 178 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith HS . Ketamine-induced urologic insult (KIUI) . Pain Physician13 ( 6 ), E343 – E346 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finch PM , KnudsenL , DrummondPD . Reduction of allodynia in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of topical ketamine . Pain146 ( 1–2 ), 18 – 25 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan RW , RyzewskiM , HollandMG , MarraffaJM . Compounded ointment results in severe toxicity in a pediatric patient . Pediatr. Emerg. Care29 ( 11 ), 1220 – 1222 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar