841
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

The Neurobiology of Pain Perception in Normal and Persistent Pain

, &
Pages 297-317 | Published online: 19 Jun 2015

References

  • Committee on Advancing Pain Research Care, and Education, Institute of Medicine . Relieving Pain in America: A Blueprint for Transforming Prevention, Care, Education, and Research . The National Academies Press , Washington, DC, USA ( 2011 ).
  • Taxonomy ITFO . Part III. Pain terms, a current list with definitions and notes on usage . In : Classification of Chronic Pain . MerskeyH , BogdukN ( Eds ). IASP Press , Seattle, WA, USA , 209 – 214 ( 1994 ).
  • Julius D . TRP channels and pain . Ann. Rev. Cell Devel. Biol.29 , 355 – 384 ( 2013 ).
  • Gangadharan V , KunerR . Pain hypersensitivity mechanisms at a glance . Dis. Model Mech.6 ( 4 ), 889 – 895 ( 2013 ).
  • Schmidt R , SchmelzM , ForsterC , RingkampM , TorebjorkE , HandwerkerH . Novel classes of responsive and unresponsive C nociceptors in human skin . J. Neurosci.15 ( 1 Pt 1 ), 333 – 341 ( 1995 ).
  • Jaggi AS , SinghN . Role of different brain areas in peripheral nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain . Brain Res.1381 , 187 – 201 ( 2011 ).
  • Mason P . Contributions of the medullary raphe and ventromedial reticular region to pain modulation and other homeostatic functions . Annu. Rev. Neurosci.24 , 737 – 777 ( 2001 ).
  • Sanchez-Catalan MJ , KauflingJ , GeorgesF , VeinanteP , BarrotM . The antero-posterior heterogeneity of the ventral tegmental area . Neuroscience282C , 198 – 216 ( 2014 ).
  • Jing YY , WangJY , LiXLet al. Nerve growth factor of red nucleus involvement in pain induced by spared nerve injury of the rat sciatic nerve . Neurochem. Res.34 ( 9 ), 1612 – 1618 ( 2009 ).
  • Petrosino S , PalazzoE , De NovellisVet al. Changes in spinal and supraspinal endocannabinoid levels in neuropathic rats . Neuropharmacology52 ( 2 ), 415 – 422 ( 2007 ).
  • Lovick TA . Pro-nociceptive action of cholecystokinin in the periaqueductal grey: a role in neuropathic and anxiety-induced hyperalgesic states . Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.32 ( 4 ), 852 – 862 ( 2008 ).
  • Loyd DR , MurphyAZ . The role of the periaqueductal gray in the modulation of pain in males and females: are the anatomy and physiology really that different?Neural Plast.462879 ( 2009 ).
  • Lau BK , VaughanCW . Descending modulation of pain the GABA disinhibition hypothesis of analgesia . Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.29 , 159 – 164 ( 2014 ).
  • Chen WK , LiuIY , ChangYTet al. Ca(v)3.2 T-type Ca2+ channel-dependent activation of ERK in paraventricular thalamus modulates acid-induced chronic muscle pain . J. Neurosci.30 ( 31 ), 10360 – 10368 ( 2010 ).
  • Shelton L , BecerraL , BorsookD . Unmasking the mysteries of the habenula in pain and analgesia . Prog. Neurobiol.96 ( 2 ), 208 – 219 ( 2012 ).
  • Wei H , ViisanenH , PertovaaraA . Descending modulation of neuropathic hypersensitivity by dopamine D2 receptors in or adjacent to the hypothalamic A11 cell group . Pharmacol. Res.59 ( 5 ), 355 – 363 ( 2009 ).
  • Takeda K , MuramatsuM , ChikumaT , KatoT . Effect of memantine on the levels of neuropeptides and microglial cells in the brain regions of rats with neuropathic pain . J. Mol. Neurosci.39 ( 3 ), 380 – 390 ( 2009 ).
  • Yen CT , LuPL . Thalamus and pain . Acta Anaesthesiol. Taiwan51 ( 2 ), 73 – 80 ( 2013 ).
  • Cornwall J , PhillipsonOT . Afferent projections to the dorsal thalamus of the rat as shown by retrograde lectin transport–I. The mediodorsal nucleus . Neuroscience24 ( 3 ), 1035 – 1049 ( 1988 ).
  • Ray JP , PriceJL . The organization of projections from the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus to orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in macaque monkeys . J. Comp. Neurol.337 ( 1 ), 1 – 31 ( 1993 ).
  • Moulton EA , SchmahmannJD , BecerraL , BorsookD . The cerebellum and pain passive integrator or active participator?Brain Res. Rev.65 ( 1 ), 14 – 27 ( 2010 ).
  • Meerwijk EL , FordJM , WeissSJ . Brain regions associated with psychological pain implications for a neural network and its relationship to physical pain . Brain Imaging Behav.7 ( 1 ), 1 – 14 ( 2013 ).
  • Houck BD , PersonAL . Cerebellar loops: a review of the nucleocortical pathway . Cerebellum13 ( 3 ), 378 – 385 ( 2014 ).
  • Garcia-Larrea L , PeyronR . Pain matrices and neuropathic pain matrices: a review . Pain154 ( Suppl. 1 ), S29 – S43 ( 2013 ).
  • Kucyi A , DavisKD . The dynamic pain connectome . Trends Neurosci.38 ( 2 ), 86 – 95 ( 2015 ).
  • Fenton BW . Limbic associated pelvic pain: a hypothesis to explain the diagnostic relationships and features of patients with chronic pelvic pain . Med. Hypotheses69 ( 2 ), 282 – 286 ( 2007 ).
  • Loeser JD . Pain and suffering . Clin. J. Pain16 ( 2 Suppl. ), S2 – S6 ( 2000 ).
  • Buzsaki G . Rhythms of the Brain . Oxford University Press , USA ( 2011 ).
  • Raichle ME , MacleodAM , SnyderAZ , PowersWJ , GusnardDA , ShulmanGL . A default mode of brain function . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA98 ( 2 ), 676 – 682 ( 2001 ).
  • Baliki MN , GehaPY , ApkarianAV , ChialvoDR . Beyond feeling: chronic pain hurts the brain, disrupting the default-mode network dynamics . J. Neurosci.28 ( 6 ), 1398 – 1403 ( 2008 ).
  • Kucyi A , MoayediM , Weissman-FogelIet al. Enhanced medial prefrontal-default mode network functional connectivity in chronic pain and its association with pain rumination . J. Neurosci.34 ( 11 ), 3969 – 3975 ( 2014 ).
  • Vogt BA . Cingulate Neurobiology and Sisease . Oxford University Press , Oxford, UK ( 2009 ).
  • Vogt BA . Pain and emotion interactions in subregions of the cingulate gyrus . Nat. Rev. Neurosci.6 ( 7 ), 533 – 544 ( 2005 ).
  • Vogt BA . Submodalities of emotion in the context of cingulate subregions . Cortex59 , 197 – 202 ( 2014 ).
  • Rolls ET . Limbic systems for emotion and for memory, but no single limbic system . Cortex62 , 1159 – 157 ( 2015 ).
  • Bush G , VogtBA , HolmesJet al. Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex: a role in reward-based decision making . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA99 ( 1 ), 523 – 528 ( 2002 ).
  • Viswanathan A , HarshV , PereiraEA , AzizTZ . Cingulotomy for medically refractory cancer pain . Neurosurg. Focus35 ( 3 ), E1 ( 2013 ).
  • Walton KD , DuboisM , LlinasRR . Abnormal thalamocortical activity in patients with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) type I . Pain150 ( 1 ), 41 – 51 ( 2010 ).
  • Jones EG . Thalamocortical dysrhythmia and chronic pain . Pain150 ( 1 ), 4 – 5 ( 2010 ).
  • Del Cul A , BailletS , DehaeneS . Brain dynamics underlying the nonlinear threshold for access to consciousness . PLoS Biol.5 ( 10 ), e260 ( 2007 ).
  • Ivo R , NicklasA , DargelJet al. Brain structural and psychometric alterations in chronic low back pain . Eur. Spine J.22 ( 9 ), 1958 – 1964 ( 2013 ).
  • Badre D . Cognitive control, hierarchy, and the rostro-caudal organization of the frontal lobes . Trends Cogn. Sci.12 ( 5 ), 193 – 200 ( 2008 ).
  • Etkin A , EgnerT , KalischR . Emotional processing in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex . Trends Cogn. Sci.15 ( 2 ), 85 – 93 ( 2011 ).
  • Ohira H , NomuraM , IchikawaNet al. Association of neural and physiological responses during voluntary emotion suppression . Neuroimage29 ( 3 ), 721 – 733 ( 2006 ).
  • Leknes S , BernaC , LeeMC , SnyderGD , BieleG , TraceyI . The importance of context: when relative relief renders pain pleasant . Pain154 ( 3 ), 402 – 410 ( 2013 ).
  • Haggard P , IannettiGD , LongoMR . Spatial sensory organization and body representation in pain perception . Curr. Biol.23 ( 4 ), R164 – R176 ( 2013 ).
  • Omori S , IsoseS , OtsuruNet al. Somatotopic representation of pain in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) in humans . Clin. Neurophysiol.124 ( 7 ), 1422 – 1430 ( 2013 ).
  • Frot M , MagninM , MauguiereF , Garcia-LarreaL . Cortical representation of pain in primary sensory-motor areas (S1/M1) – a study using intracortical recordings in humans . Hum. Brain Mapp.34 ( 10 ), 2655 – 2668 ( 2013 ).
  • Melzack R . Phantom limbs and the concept of a neuromatrix . Trends Neurosci.13 ( 3 ), 88 – 92 ( 1990 ).
  • Lorenz J , CaseyKL . Imaging of acute versus pathological pain in humans . Eur. J. Pain9 ( 2 ), 163 – 165 ( 2005 ).
  • Diatchenko L , SladeGD , NackleyAGet al. Genetic basis for individual variations in pain perception and the development of a chronic pain condition . Hum. Mol. Genet.14 ( 1 ), 135 – 143 ( 2005 ).
  • Krishnan V , HanMH , GrahamDLet al. Molecular adaptations underlying susceptibility and resistance to social defeat in brain reward regions . Cell131 ( 2 ), 391 – 404 ( 2007 ).
  • Legrain V , IannettiGD , PlaghkiL , MourauxA . The pain matrix reloaded: a salience detection system for the body . Prog. Neurobiol.93 ( 1 ), 111 – 124 ( 2011 ).
  • Garcia-Larrea L . The posterior insular-opercular region and the search of a primary cortex for pain . Neurophysiol. Clin.42 ( 5 ), 299 – 313 ( 2012 ).
  • Lenz FA , GracelyRH , RomanoskiAJ , HopeEJ , RowlandLH , DoughertyPM . Stimulation in the human somatosensory thalamus can reproduce both the affective and sensory dimensions of previously experienced pain . Nat. Med.1 ( 9 ), 910 – 913 ( 1995 ).
  • Isnard J , MagninM , JungJ , MauguiereF , Garcia-LarreaL . Does the insula tell our brain that we are in pain?Pain152 ( 4 ), 946 – 951 ( 2011 ).
  • Pomares FB , FaillenotI , BarralFG , PeyronR . The ‘where’ and the ‘when’ of the BOLD response to pain in the insular cortex. Discussion on amplitudes and latencies . Neuroimage64 , 466 – 475 ( 2013 ).
  • Wiech K , PlonerM , TraceyI . Neurocognitive aspects of pain perception . Trends Cogn. Sci.12 ( 8 ), 306 – 313 ( 2008 ).
  • Abrahamsen R , DietzM , LodahlSet al. Effect of hypnotic pain modulation on brain activity in patients with temporomandibular disorder pain . Pain151 ( 3 ), 825 – 833 ( 2010 ).
  • Lamm C , DecetyJ , SingerT . Meta-analytic evidence for common and distinct neural networks associated with directly experienced pain and empathy for pain . Neuroimage54 ( 3 ), 2492 – 2502 ( 2011 ).
  • Dehaene S , ChangeuxJP , NaccacheL , SackurJ , SergentC . Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy . Trends Cogn. Sci.10 ( 5 ), 204 – 211 ( 2006 ).
  • Grant JA , CourtemancheJ , RainvilleP . A non-elaborative mental stance and decoupling of executive and pain-related cortices predicts low pain sensitivity in Zen meditators . Pain152 ( 1 ), 150 – 156 ( 2011 ).
  • Fayed N , AndresE , RojasGet al. Brain dysfunction in fibromyalgia and somatization disorder using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy: a controlled study . Acta Psychiatr. Scand.126 ( 2 ), 115 – 125 ( 2012 ).
  • Lenz FA , RiosM , ZirhA , ChauD , KraussG , LesserRP . Painful stimuli evoke potentials recorded over the human anterior cingulate gyrus . J. Neurophysiol.79 ( 4 ), 2231 – 2234 ( 1998 ).
  • Sheng F , HanX , HanS . Dissociated neural representations of pain expressions of different races . Cereb. Cortex doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu314 ( 2015 ) ( Epub ahead of print ).
  • Jensen MP , GianasA , SherlinLH , HoweJD . Pain catastrophizing and EEG-alpha asymmetry . Clin. J. Pain ( 2014 ) ( Epub ahead of print ).
  • Klug S , AndererP , Saletu-ZyhlarzGet al. Dysfunctional pain modulation in somatoform pain disorder patients . Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.261 ( 4 ), 267 – 275 ( 2011 ).
  • Apkarian AV , SosaY , SontySet al. Chronic back pain is associated with decreased prefrontal and thalamic gray matter density . J. Neurosci.24 ( 46 ), 10410 – 10415 ( 2004 ).
  • Lelic D , OlesenSS , ValerianiM , DrewesAM . Brain source connectivity reveals the visceral pain network . Neuroimage60 ( 1 ), 37 – 46 ( 2012 ).
  • Farmer MA , ChandaML , ParksEL , BalikiMN , ApkarianAV , SchaefferAJ . Brain functional and anatomical changes in chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome . J. Urol.186 ( 1 ), 117 – 124 ( 2011 ).
  • Komisaruk BR , WhippleB . Functional MRI of the brain during orgasm in women . Annu. Rev. Sex Res.16 , 62 – 86 ( 2005 ).
  • De Felice M , SanojaR , WangRet al. Engagement of descending inhibition from the rostral ventromedial medulla protects against chronic neuropathic pain . Pain152 ( 12 ), 2701 – 2709 ( 2011 ).
  • Pud D , GranovskyY , YarnitskyD . The methodology of experimentally induced diffuse noxious inhibitory control (DNIC)-like effect in humans . Pain144 ( 1–2 ), 16 – 19 ( 2009 ).
  • Nakata H , SakamotoK , KakigiR . Meditation reduces pain-related neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, secondary somatosensory cortex, and thalamus . Front. Psychol.5 , 1489 ( 2014 ).
  • Moont R , CrispelY , LevR , PudD , YarnitskyD . Temporal changes in cortical activation during conditioned pain modulation (CPM), a LORETA study . Pain152 ( 7 ), 1469 – 1477 ( 2011 ).
  • Benedetti F . Placebo effects. from the neurobiological paradigm to translational implications . Neuron84 ( 3 ), 623 – 637 ( 2014 ).
  • IASP Taxonomy . www.iasp-pain.org/taxonomy .
  • Lewis GN , RiceDA , McnairPJ , KlugerM . Predictors of persistent pain after total knee arthroplasty: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Br. J. Anaesth.114 ( 4 ), 551 – 561 ( 2015 ).
  • Gold MS , GebhartGF . Nociceptor sensitization in pain pathogenesis . Nat. Med.16 ( 11 ), 1248 – 1257 ( 2010 ).
  • Gerdle B , GhafouriB , ErnbergM , LarssonB . Chronic musculoskeletal pain review of mechanisms and biochemical biomarkers as assessed by the microdialysis technique . J. Pain Res.7 , 313 – 326 ( 2014 ).
  • Hirth M , RukwiedR , GromannAet al. Nerve growth factor induces sensitization of nociceptors without evidence for increased intraepidermal nerve fiber density . Pain154 ( 11 ), 2500 – 2511 ( 2013 ).
  • Woolf CJ , CostiganM . Transcriptional and posttranslational plasticity and the generation of inflammatory pain . Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA96 ( 14 ), 7723 – 7730 ( 1999 ).
  • Kim CF , Moalem-TaylorG . Detailed characterization of neuro-immune responses following neuropathic injury in mice . Brain Res.1405 , 95 – 108 ( 2011 ).
  • Mantyh PW . The neurobiology of skeletal pain . Eur. J. Neurosci.39 ( 3 ), 508 – 519 ( 2014 ).
  • Namer B , SchickM , KleggetveitIPet al. Differential sensitization of silent nociceptors to low pH stimulation by prostaglandin E2 in human volunteers . Eur. J. Pain19 ( 2 ), 159 – 166 ( 2014 ).
  • Butrick CW . Interstitial cystitis and chronic pelvic pain new insights in neuropathology, diagnosis, and treatment . Clin. Obstet. Gynecol.46 ( 4 ), 811 – 823 ( 2003 ).
  • Inquimbert P , BartelsK , BabaniyiOB , BarrettLB , TegederI , ScholzJ . Peripheral nerve injury produces a sustained shift in the balance between glutamate release and uptake in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord . Pain153 ( 12 ), 2422 – 2431 ( 2012 ).
  • Sandkuhler J . Models and mechanisms of hyperalgesia and allodynia . Physiol. Rev.89 ( 2 ), 707 – 758 ( 2009 ).
  • Viisanen H , PertovaaraA . Roles of the rostroventromedial medulla and the spinal 5-HT(1A) receptor in descending antinociception induced by motor cortex stimulation in the neuropathic rat . Neurosci. Lett.476 ( 3 ), 133 – 137 ( 2010 ).
  • Tsai YJ , LinCT , HuangCTet al. Neuropeptide Y modulates c-Fos protein expression in the cuneate nucleus and contributes to mechanical hypersensitivity following rat median nerve injury . J. Neurotrauma.26 ( 9 ), 1609 – 1621 ( 2009 ).
  • Gosselin RD , BebberD , DecosterdI . Upregulation of the GABA transporter GAT-1 in the gracile nucleus in the spared nerve injury model of neuropathic pain . Neurosci. Lett.480 ( 2 ), 132 – 137 ( 2010 ).
  • Tsuruoka M , WillisWDJr . Bilateral lesions in the area of the nucleus locus coeruleus affect the development of hyperalgesia during carrageenan-induced inflammation . Brain Res.726 ( 1–2 ), 233 – 236 ( 1996 ).
  • Brightwell JJ , TaylorBK . Noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus contribute to neuropathic pain . Neuroscience160 ( 1 ), 174 – 185 ( 2009 ).
  • Fishbain DA , LewisJE , GaoJ . Are psychoactive substance (opioid)-dependent chronic pain patients hyperalgesic?Pain Pract.11 ( 4 ), 337 – 343 ( 2011 ).
  • Woolf CJ . Evidence for a central component of post-injury pain hypersensitivity . Nature306 ( 5944 ), 686 – 688 ( 1983 ).
  • Seminowicz DA , LaferriereAL , MillecampsM , YuJS , CoderreTJ , BushnellMC . MRI structural brain changes associated with sensory and emotional function in a rat model of long-term neuropathic pain . Neuroimage47 ( 3 ), 1007 – 1014 ( 2009 ).
  • Davis KD , KissZH , LuoL , TaskerRR , LozanoAM , DostrovskyJO . Phantom sensations generated by thalamic microstimulation . Nature391 ( 6665 ), 385 – 387 ( 1998 ).
  • Ansah OB , Leite-AlmeidaH , WeiH , PertovaaraA . Striatal dopamine D2 receptors attenuate neuropathic hypersensitivity in the rat . Exp. Neurol.205 ( 2 ), 536 – 546 ( 2007 ).
  • Ikeda R , TakahashiY , InoueK , KatoF . NMDA receptor-independent synaptic plasticity in the central amygdala in the rat model of neuropathic pain . Pain127 ( 1–2 ), 161 – 172 ( 2007 ).
  • Carrasquillo Y , GereauRWT . Hemispheric lateralization of a molecular signal for pain modulation in the amygdala . Mol. Pain4 , 24 ( 2008 ).
  • Neugebauer V , GalhardoV , MaioneS , MackeySC . Forebrain pain mechanisms . Brain Res. Rev.60 ( 1 ), 226 – 242 ( 2009 ).
  • Coffeen U , Manuel Ortega-LegaspiJ , Lopez-MunozFJ , Simon-ArceoK , JaimesO , PellicerF . Insular cortex lesion diminishes neuropathic and inflammatory pain-like behaviours . Eur. J. Pain15 ( 2 ), 132 – 138 ( 2011 ).
  • Baliki M , Al-AminHA , AtwehSFet al. Attenuation of neuropathic manifestations by local block of the activities of the ventrolateral orbito-frontal area in the rat . Neuroscience120 ( 4 ), 1093 – 1104 ( 2003 ).
  • Toyoda H , ZhaoMG , ZhuoM . Enhanced quantal release of excitatory transmitter in anterior cingulate cortex of adult mice with chronic pain . Mol. Pain5 , 4 ( 2009 ).
  • Takeda R , WatanabeY , IkedaTet al. Analgesic effect of milnacipran is associated with c-Fos expression in the anterior cingulate cortex in the rat neuropathic pain model . Neurosci. Res.64 ( 4 ), 380 – 384 ( 2009 ).
  • Hoot MR , Sim-SelleyLJ , PoklisJLet al. Chronic constriction injury reduces cannabinoid receptor 1 activity in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex of mice . Brain Res.1339 , 18 – 25 ( 2010 ).
  • Al Amin HA , AtwehSF , BakiSA , JabburSJ , SaadeNE . Continuous perfusion with morphine of the orbitofrontal cortex reduces allodynia and hyperalgesia in a rat model for mononeuropathy . Neurosci. Lett.364 ( 1 ), 27 – 31 ( 2004 ).
  • Fuccio C , LuongoC , CapodannoPet al. A single subcutaneous injection of ozone prevents allodynia and decreases the over-expression of pro-inflammatory caspases in the orbito-frontal cortex of neuropathic mice . Eur. J. Pharmacol.603 ( 1–3 ), 42 – 49 ( 2009 ).
  • Pahapill PA , ZhangW . Restoration of altered somatosensory cortical representation with spinal cord stimulation therapy in a patient with complex regional pain syndrome: a magnetoencephalography case study . Neuromodulation17 ( 1 ), 22 – 26 ; discussion 26–27 ( 2014 ).
  • De Tommaso M , DelussiM , VecchioE , SciruicchioV , InvittoS , LivreaP . Sleep features and central sensitization symptoms in primary headache patients . J. Headache Pain15 , 64 ( 2014 ).
  • Fenton BW , GreySF , ArmstrongA , MccarrollM , Von GruenigenV . Latent profile analysis of pelvic floor muscle pain in patients with chronic pelvic pain . Minerva Ginecol.65 ( 1 ), 69 – 78 ( 2013 ).
  • Fenton BW , GreySF , ReichenbachM , MccarrollM , Von GruenigenV . Phenotyping chronic pelvic pain based on latent class modeling of physical examination . Pain Res. Treat.891301 ( 2013 ).
  • Goldberg YP , PriceN , NamdariRet al. Treatment of Na(v)1.7-mediated pain in inherited erythromelalgia using a novel sodium channel blocker . Pain153 ( 1 ), 80 – 85 ( 2012 ).
  • Cox JJ , SheyninJ , ShorerZet al. Congenital insensitivity to pain novel SCN9A missense and in-frame deletion mutations . Hum. Mutat.31 ( 9 ), E1670 – E1686 ( 2010 ).
  • Yu XH , CaoCQ , MartinoGet al. A peripherally restricted cannabinoid receptor agonist produces robust anti-nociceptive effects in rodent models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain . Pain151 ( 2 ), 337 – 344 ( 2010 ).
  • Fan QQ , LiL , WangWT , YangX , SuoZW , HuXD . Activation of alpha2 adrenoceptors inhibited NMDA receptor-mediated nociceptive transmission in spinal dorsal horn of mice with inflammatory pain . Neuropharmacology77 , 185 – 192 ( 2014 ).
  • Zhang Z , TaoW , HouYY , WangW , KennyPJ , PanZZ . MeCP2 repression of G9a in regulation of pain and morphine reward . J. Neurosci.34 ( 27 ), 9076 – 9087 ( 2014 ).
  • Silva GD , LopesP , FonoffET , PaganoRL . The spinal anti-inflammatory mechanism of motor cortex stimulation: cause of success and refractoriness in neuropathic pain?J. Neuroinflammation12 ( 1 ), 10 ( 2015 ).
  • Schnitzer TJ , MarksJA . A systematic review of the efficacy and general safety of antibodies to NGF in the treatment of OA of the hip or knee . Osteoarthritis Cartilage23 ( Suppl. 1 ), S8 – S17 ( 2015 ).
  • Simis M , ReidlerJS , Duarte MaceaDet al. Investigation of central nervous system dysfunction in chronic pelvic pain using magnetic resonance spectroscopy and noninvasive brain stimulation . Pain Pract.15 ( 5 ), 423 – 432 ( 2015 ).
  • Fenton BW , FanningJ , BoggioPS , FregniF . A pilot efficacy trial of tDCS for the treatment of refractory chronic pelvic pain . Brain Stimul.2 ( 2 ), 103 – 107 ( 2009 ).
  • Nizard J , RaoulS , NguyenJP , LefaucheurJP . Invasive stimulation therapies for the treatment of refractory pain . Discov. Med.14 ( 77 ), 237 – 246 ( 2012 ).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.