References
- Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and revised child behavior profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
- Amaya-Jackson, L. (1998). Child’s Exposure to Violence Checklist. Durham, NC: Trauma Evaluation, Treatment and Research Programme, Centre for Child and Family Health.
- Bender, D., & Lösel, F. (1997). Protective and risk effects of peer relations and social support on antisocial behaviour in adolescents from multi-problem milieus. Journal of Adolescence, 20(6), 661–678. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1997.0118
- Benhorin, S., & McMahon, S. D. (2008). Exposure to violence and aggression: Protective roles of social support among urban African American youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(6), 723–743. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20252
- Bokhorst, C. L., Sumter, S. R., & Westenberg, P. M. (2010). Social support from parents, friends, classmates, and teachers in children and adolescents aged 9 to 18 years: Who is perceived as most supportive? Social Development, 19(2), 417–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00540.x
- Bruwer, B., Emsley, R., Kidd, M., Lochner, C., & Seedat, S. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support in youth. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49(2), 195–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.09.002
- Burton, P. (2006). Easy prey: Results of the national youth victimisation study. SA Crime Quarterly, 16, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3108/2006/v0i16a993
- Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. (1992). The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 452–459. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452
- Canty-Mitchell, J., & Zimet, G. D. (2000). Psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support in urban adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(3), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005109522457
- City of Cape Town. (2011). City of Cape Town—2011 Census Retrieved 20th February 2018 from http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/education-and-research-materials/data-statistics-and-research/cape-town-census
- Cluver, L., Fincham, D., & Seedat, S. (2009). Posttraumatic stress in AIDS-orphaned children exposed to high levels of trauma: The protective role of perceived social support. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(2), 106–112. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20396
- Cluver, L., Gardner, F., & Operario, D. (2007). Psychological distress amongst AIDS-orphaned children in urban South Africa. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 48(8), 755–763. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01757.x
- Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
- Collings, S. J., Penning, S. L., & Valjee, S. R. (2014). Lifetime poly-victimisation and posttraumatic stress disorder among school-going adolescents in Durban, South Africa. Journal of Psychiatry, 17(5), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.4172/Psychiatry.1000133
- du Plessis, B., Kaminer, D., Hardy, A., & Benjamin, A. (2015). The contribution of different forms of violence exposure to internalizing and externalizing symptoms among young South African adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 45, 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.02.021
- Fincham, D. S., Altes, L. K., Stein, D. J., & Seedat, S. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adolescents: Risk factors versus resilience moderation. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50(3), 193–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.09.001
- Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, A. H. (2007). Poly-victimisation: A neglected component in child victimisation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.06.008
- Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2004). Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(3), 439–449. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_2
- Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Scheier, L. M., Doyle, M. M., & Williams, C. (2003). Common predictors of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, aggression, and delinquency among inner-city minority youth. Addictive Behaviors, 28(6), 1141–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4603(02)00225-3
- Halliday-Boykins, C. A., & Graham, S. (2001). At both ends of the gun: Testing the relationship between community violence exposure and youth violent behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(5), 383–402. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010443302344
- Hammack, P. L., Richards, M. H., Luo, Z., Edlynn, E. S., & Roy, K. (2004). Social support factors as moderators of community violence exposure among inner-city African American young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(3), 450–462. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_3
- Hemphill, J. F. (2003). Interpreting the magnitudes of correlation coefficients. The American Psychologist, 58(1), 78–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.78
- IBM Corp. 2014. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0 [Computer software]. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
- Jones, J. M. (2007). Exposure to chronic community violence resilience in African American children. The Journal of Black Psychology, 33(2), 125–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798407299511
- Kaminer, D., du Plessis, B., Hardy, A., & Benjamin, A. (2013). Exposure to violence across multiple sites among young South African adolescents. Peace and Conflict, 19(2), 112–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032487
- Kaynak, Ö., Lepore, S. J., & Kliewer, W. L. (2011). Social moderation of the relation between community violence exposure and depressive symptoms in an urban adolescent sample. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(3), 250–269. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2011.30.3.250
- Little, R. J., & Su, H. L. (1989). Item non-response in panel surveys. In D. Kasprzyk, G. Duncan, G. Kalton, & M. P. Singh (Eds.), Panel surveys (pp. 400–425). New York: Wiley.
- McCart, M. R., Smith, D. W., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2007). Do urban adolescents become desensitised to community violence? Data from a national survey. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(3), 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.3.434
- Meinck, F., Cluver, L. D., Boyes, M. E., & Mhlongo, E. L. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and sexual abuse of children and adolescents in Africa: A review and implications for practice. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 16(1), 81–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014523336
- Meintjes, H., Hall, K., Marera, D. H., & Boulle, A. (2010). Orphans of the AIDS epidemic? The extent, nature and circumstances of child-headed households in South Africa. AIDS Care, 22(1), 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120903033029
- Miller, T. (2011). Making sense of fatherhood: Gender, caring and work. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
- O’Donnell, D. A., Schwab–Stone, M. E., & Muyeed, A. Z. (2002). Multidimensional resilience in urban children exposed to community violence. Child Development, 73(4), 1265–1282. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00471
- Ozer, E. J., Lavi, I., Douglas, L., & Wolf, J. P. (2017). Protective factors for youth exposed to violence in their communities: A review of family, school, and community moderators. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 46(3), 353–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1046178
- Posel, D., & Devey, R. (2006). The demographics of fathers in South Africa: An analysis of survey data, 1993–2002. In L. Richter & R. Morrell (Eds.), Baba: Men and fatherhood in South Africa (pp. 38–52). Cape Town, South Africa: HSRC Press.
- Rushkin, V., Schwab-Stone, M., & Vermeiren, R. (2004). Social and Health Assessment (SAHA): Psychometric development summary. New Haven: Yale University.
- Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., Rosario, M., & Ng-Mak, D. S. (2010). Role of parent and peer relationships and individual characteristics in middle school children’s behavioral outcomes in the face of community violence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(2), 395–407. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00677.x
- Scarpa, A., Haden, S. C., & Hurley, J. (2006). Community violence victimisation and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. The moderating effects of coping and social support. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(4), 446–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505285726
- Seidman, E., & Pedersen, S. (2003). Holistic contextual perspectives on risk, protection, and competence among low-income urban adolescents. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 318–342). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511615788.015
- Shields, N., Nadasen, K., & Pierce, L. (2008). The effects of community violence on children in Cape Town, South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(5), 589–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.07.010
- Stansfeld, S. A., Rothon, C., Das-Munshi, J., Mathews, C., Adams, A., Clark, C., & Lund, C. (2017). Exposure to violence and mental health of adolescents: South African Health and Well-being Study. BJPsych Open, 3(5), 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjpo.bp.117.004861
- van Buuren, S. (2012). Flexible imputation of missing data. Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b11826
- van Ginkel, J. R., Sijtsma, K., van der Ark, L. A., & Vermunt, J. K. (2010). Incidence of missing item scores in personality measurement, and simple item-score imputation. Methodology, 6(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241/a000003
- Ward, C. L., Martin, E., Theron, C., & Distiller, G. B. (2007). Factors affecting resilience in children exposed to violence. South African Journal of Psychology. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Sielkunde, 37(1), 165–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630703700112
- Weierstall, R., Hinsberger, M., Kaminer, D., Holtzhausen, L., Madikane, S., & Elbert, T. (2013). Appetitive aggression and adaptation to a violent environment among youth offenders. Peace and Conflict, 19(2), 138–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032489