Showing that Life Events are a Cause of Depression—A Review

References

• Alarcon R. D., Covi L. The precipitating event in depression. Some methodological considerations. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1972; 155: 379–391
   Google Scholar
• Andrews J. G., Tennant C. Life event stress and psychiatric illness. Psychological Medicine 1978; 8: 545–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birley J. L. T., Brown G. W. Crises and life changes preceding the onset or relapse of acute schizophrenia: clinical aspects. British Journal of Psychiatry 1970; 116: 327–333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown G. W. Life events and psychaitric illness: some thoughts on methodology and causality. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1972; 16: 311–320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown G. W. Meaning, measurement and stress of life events. Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effects, B. Dothrenwend, B. P. Dohrenwend. Wiley, New York 1974
   Google Scholar
• Brown G. W., Birley J. L. T. Crises and life changes and the onset of schizophrenia. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 1968; 9: 203–214
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown G. W., Harris T. The Social Origins of Depression. Tavistock, London 1978
   Google Scholar
• Brown G. W., Harris T. O., Peto J. Life events and psychiatric disorders. Part II. Nature of the causal link. Psychological Medicine 1973b; 3: 159–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown G. W., Ni Bhrolchain M., Harris T. Social class and psychiatric disturbance among women in an urban population. Sociology 1975; 9: 225–254
   Google Scholar
• Brown G. W., Sklair F., Harris T. O., Birley J. L. T. Life events and psychiatric disorders. Part I. Some methodological issues. Psychological Medicine 1973a; 3: 74–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cadoret R. J., Winokur G., Dorzab J., Baker M. Depressive disease: Life events and onset of illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 1972; 26: 133–136
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cleary P. J. A checklist for life event research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1980; 24: 199–207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comstock G., Helsing K. J. Symptoms of depression in two communities. Psychological Medicine 1976; 6: 551–563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper B., Sylph J. Life events and the onset of neurotic illness: an investigation in general practice. Psychological Medicine 1973; 3: 421–435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper J. E., Copeland J. R. M., Brown G. W., Harris T., Gourlay A. J. Further studies on interviewer training and inter-rater reliability of the Present State Examination (PSE). Psychological Medicine 1977; 7: 517–523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dohrenwend B. S., Dohrenwend B. P. Some issues in research on stressful life events. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1978; 166: 7–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dohrenwend B. S., Krasnoff L., Askenasy A. R., Dohrenwend B. P. Exemplification of a method for scaling life events: the PERI life events scale. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 1978; 19: 205–229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan-Jones P., Henderson S., Byrne D. G. The Present State Examination: its use without formal training in a population survey. Social Psychiatry 1980; 15: 91–93
   Google Scholar
• Everitt B. S. The Analysis of Contingency Tables. Chapman and Hall, London 1977
   Google Scholar
• Feinstein A. R. Clinical biostastics, XX: The epidemiologic trohoc, the ablative risk ratio, and ‘retrospective’ research. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1973; 14: 291
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Finlay-Jones R. A., Brown G. W. Types of stressful life event and the onset of anxiety and depressive disorders. Psychological Medicine 1981, In press
   Google Scholar
• Finlay-Jones R. A., Brown G. W., Duncan-Jones P., Harris T., Murphy E., Prudo R. Depression and anxiety in the community: replicating the diagnosis of a case. Psychological Medicine 1980; 10: 445–454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finlay-Jones R. A., Burvill P. W. Contrasting demographic patterns of minor psychiatric morbidity in general practice and the community. Psychological Medicine 1978; 8: 455–466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontana A. F., Marcus J. L., Noel B., Rakusin J. M. Prehospitalisation coping styles of psychiatric patients: the goal-directedness of life events. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1972; 155: 311–321
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Forrest A. D., Fraser R. H., Priest R. G. Environmental factors in depressive illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 1965; 111: 243–253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerst M. S., Grant I., Yager J., Sweetwood H. The reliability of the social readjustment rating scale: moderate and long term stability. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1978; 22: 519–523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg E. L., Comstock G. W. Epidemiology of life events: frequency in general populations. American Journal of Epidemiology 1980; 111: 736–752
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant I., Gerst M., Yager J. Scaling of life events by psychiatric patients and normals. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1976; 20: 141–149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haber M. A comparison of some continuity corrections for the Chi-squared test on 2 × 2 tables. Journal of the American Statistical Association 1980; 75: 510–515
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haberman S. J. Analysis of Qualitative Data. Volume 1: Introductory Topics. Academic Press, New York 1978
   Google Scholar
• Henderson S., Byrne D., Duncan-Jones P. Neurosis and the Social Environment. Academic Press, Sydney 1981
   Google Scholar
• Hirschi T., Selvin H. C. Principles of Survey Analysis. The Free Press, New York 1973
   Google Scholar
• Holmes T. H., Rahe R. H. The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1967; 11: 213–218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz M., Schaeffer C., Hiroto D., Wilner N., Levin B. Life event questionnaires for measuring presumptive stress. Psychosomatic Medicine 1977; 39: 413–431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudgens R. W., Morrison J. R., Barchha R. G. Life events and onset of primary affective disorders: a study of 40 hospitalised patients and 40 controls. Archives of General Psychiatry 1967; 16: 134–145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudgens R. W., Robins E., Delong W. B. The reporting of recent stress in the lives of psychiatric patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 1970; 117: 635–643
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Husaini B. A., Neff J. A. Characteristics of life events and psychiatric impairment in rural communities. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1980; 168: 159–166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs S. C., Prusoff B. A., Paykel E. S. Recent life events in schizophrenia and depression. Psychological Medicine 1974; 4: 444–453
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins C. D., Hurst M. W., Rose R. M. Life changes. Do people really remember?. Archives of General Psychiatry 1979; 36: 379–384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd C. Life events and depressive disorder reviewed. II. Events as precipitating factors. Archives of General Psychiatry 1980; 37: 541–548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masuda M., Holmes T. H. Life events: perceptions and frequencies. Psychosomatic Medicine 1978; 40: 236–261
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller D. P., Edwards D. W., Yarvis R. M. Stressful life events and community mental health center patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1978; 166: 16–24
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parkes C. M. Recent bereavement as a cause of mental illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 1964; 110: 198–204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paykel E. S. Recent life events and clinical depression. Life Stress and Illness, E. K. Gunderson, R. H. Rahe. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois 1974
   Google Scholar
• Paykel E. S. Contribution of life events to causation of psychiatric illness. Psychological Medicine 1978; 8: 245–253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paykel E. S. Recall and reporting of life events (Letter). Archives of General Psychiatry 1980; 37: 485
   Google Scholar
• Paykel E. S., Emms E. M., Fletcher J., Rassaby E. S. Life events and social support in puerperal depression. British Journal of Psychiatry 1980; 136: 339–346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paykel E. S., Myers J. K., Dienelt M. N., Klerman G. L., Lindenthal J. J., Pepper M. P. Life events and depression. A controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 1969; 21: 753–760
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paykel E. S., Prusoff B. A., Myers J. K. Suicide attempts and recent life events: a controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 1975; 32: 327–333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paykel E. S., Prusoff B. A., Uhlenhuth E. H. Scaling of life events. Archives of General Psychiatry 1971; 25: 340–347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabkin J. G., Struening E. L. Life events, stress and illness. Science 1976; 194: 1013–1020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahe R. H., Meyer M., Smith M., Kjaer G., Holmes T. H. Social status and illness onset. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1964; 8: 35–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal R., Rubin D. B. A note on percent variance explained as a measure of the importance of effects. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1979; 9: 395–396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schless A. P., Schwartz L., Goetz C., Mendels J. How depressives view the significance of life events. British Journal of Psychiatry 1974; 125: 406–410
   Google Scholar
• Schless A. P., Teichmann A., Mendels J., Weinstein N. W., Weller K. Life events and illness: a three year prospective study. British Journal of Psychiatry 1977; 131: 26–34
   Google Scholar
• Schless A. P., Mendels J. The value of interviewing family and friends in assessing life stressors. Archives of General Psychiatry 1978; 35: 565–567
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi B. B. Relationship of separation to depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 1964; 10: 486–496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele G. P., Henderson S., Duncan-Jones P. The reliability of reporting adverse experiences. Psychological Medicine 1980; 10: 301–306
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Susser M. Causal Thinking in the Health Sciences. Oxford University Press, New York 1973
   Google Scholar
• Susser M. Judgement and causal inference: criteria in epidemiologic studies. American Journal of Epidemiology 1977; 105: 1–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Susser M. The epidemiology of life stress. Psychological Medicine 1981; 11: 1–8
   Google Scholar
• Tennant C., Andrews G. A scale to measure the stress of life events. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1976; 10: 27–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tennant C., Smith A., Bebbington P., Hurry J. The contextual threat of life events: the concept and its reliability. Psychological Medicine 1979; 9: 525–528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson K. C., Hendrie H. C. Environmental stress in primary depressive illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 1972; 26: 130–132
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Uhlenhuth E. H., Lipman R. S., Balter M. B., Stern M. Symptom intensity and life stress in the city. Archives of General Psychiatry 1974; 31: 759–764
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uhlenhuth E. H., Haberman S. J., Balter M. D., Lipman R. S. Remembering life events. The Origins and Course of Psychopathology, J. Strauss, H. M. Babigian, M. Roff. Plenum Press, New York 1977
   Google Scholar
• Van Praag H. M. Psychopsychiatry: can psychosocial factors cause psychiatric disorders?. Comprehensive Psychiatry 1979; 20: 215–225
   Google Scholar
• Wildman R. C., Johnson D. R. Life change and Langner's 22-item mental health index: a study and partial replication. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 1977; 18: 179–188
   Google Scholar
• Wing J. K. A technique for studying psychiatric morbidity in in-patient and out-patient series and in general populations samples. Psychological Medicine 1976; 6: 665–671
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wing J. K., Cooper J. E., Sartorius N. The Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms. Cambridge University Press, London 1974
   Google Scholar
• Wing J. K., Nixon J. M., Mann S. A., Leff J. P. Reliability of the PSE (ninth edition) used in a population study. Psychological Medicine 1977a; 7: 505–516
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wing J. K., Henderson A. S., Winckle M. The rating of symptoms by a psychiatrist and a non-psychiatrist: a study of patients referred from general practice. Psychological Medicine 1977b; 7: 713–716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wing J. K., Mann S. A., Leff J. P., Nixon J. M. The concept of a ‘case’ in psychiatric population surveys. Psychological Medicine 1978; 8: 203–217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar