The Significance of Eye Blink Rate in Parkinsonism: A Hypothesis

References

• Aldegunde M., Miguez I., Veira J. Effects of pinealectomy on regional brain serotonin metabolism. International Journal of Neuroscience 1985; 26: 9–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anton-Tay F., Diaz J. L., Fernandez-Guardiola A. On the effects of melatonin upon human brain: Its possible therapeutic implications. Life Sciences 1971; 10: 841–850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradbury A. J., Kelly M. E., Smith J. A. Melatonin action in the midbrain can regulate forebrain dopamine function both behaviourally and biochemically. The pineal gland: endocrine aspects, G. M. Brown, S. D. Wainwright. Pergamon Press, Oxford 1985; 327–332
   Google Scholar
• Cohen D. J., Detlor J., Young J. G. Clonidine ameliorates Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry 1980; 37: 1350–1357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotzias G. C., Tang L. C., Miller S. J., Ginos J. Z. Melatonin and abnormal movements induced by L-dopa in mice. Science 1971; 173: 450–452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cremer-Bartels G., Ebels I., Sykes J. E. C., de Moree A. Effects of retinal and pineal low molecular weight fractions and antipsychotic drugs on hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase. Journal of Neural Transmission 1983; 58: 107–119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubocovich M. L. Melatonin is a potent modulator of dopamine release in the retina. Nature 1984; 306: 782–784
   Google Scholar
• Fahn S. Fluctuations of disability in Parkinson's disease: pathophysiology. Movement disorders, C. D. Marsden, S. Fahn. Butterworth Scientific, London 1982; 123–145
   Google Scholar
• Frucht Y., Vidauri J., Melamed E. Light activation of dopaminergic neurons in rat retina is mediated through photoreceptors. Brain Research 1982; 249: 153–156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley R., Padwick D., Smith J. A. The inhibition of pineal hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase by haloperidol and fluphenazine. Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacy 1972; 24(suppl)100P–103P
   Google Scholar
• Karson C. N. Oculomotor signs in a psychiatric population: A preliminary report. American Journal of Psychiatry 1979; 136: 1057–1061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karson C. N., Freed W. J., Kleinman J. E., Bigelow L. B., Wyatt R. J. Neuroleptics decrease blinking in schizophrenic subjects. Biological Psychiatry 1981b; 16: 679–682
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karson C. N., Staub R. A., Kleinman J. E., Wyatt R. J. Drug effect on blink rates in rhesus monkeys: Preliminary studies. Biological Psychiatry 1981a; 16: 249–254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klawans H. L., Goodwin J. A. Reversal of the glabellar reflex in Parkinsonism by L-dopa. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1969; 32: 423–427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinman J. E., Karson C. N., Weinberger D. R., Freed W. J., Berman K. F., Wyatt R. J. Eye-blinking and cerebral ventricular size in chronic schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1984; 141: 1430–1432
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kopp N., Clasutrat B., Tappaz M. Evidence for the presence of melatonin in the human brain. Neuroscience Letters 1980; 19: 237–242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer S. G. Dopamine: a retinal neurotrasmitter. I. Retinal uptake, storage, and light stimulated release of (3H) dopamine in vitro. Investigative Ophthalmology 1971; 10: 438–452
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lewy A. J., Wehr T. A., Goodwin F. K., Newsome D. A., Markey S. P. Light suppresses melatonin secretion in humans. Science 1980; 210: 1267–1269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luchins D. J., Jackman H., Meltzer H. Y. Lateral ventricular size and drug induced Parkinsonism. Psychiatry Research 1983; 9: 9–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch H. J., Wang P., Wurtman R. J. Increase in rat pineal melatonin content following L-dopa administration. Life Sciences 1973; 12: 145–151
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maurizi C. P. Disorder of the pineal gland associated with depression, peptic ulcer, and sexual dysfunction. South Medical Journal 1984; 77: 1516–1518
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mouret J. Differences in sleep in patients with Parkinson's disease. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1975; 38: 653–657
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Owens D. G. C., Johnstone E. C., Crow T. J., Frith C. D., Jagoe J. R., Kreel L. Lateral ventricular size in schizophrenia: relationship to the disease process and its clinical manifestations. Psychological Medicine 1985; 15: 27–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkinson D., Rando R. R. Effect of light on dopamine turnover and metabolism in rabbit retina. Investigative Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences 1983; 24: 384–388
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Penders C. A., Delwaide P. J. Blink reflex studies in patients with Parkinsonism before and during therapy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1971; 34: 674–678
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ponder E., Kennedy W. P. On the act of blinking. Journal of Experimental Physiology 1928; 18: 89–110
   Google Scholar
• Potkin S. G., Weinberger D. R., Linnoila M., Wyatt R. J. Low CSF 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in schizophrenic patients with enlarged ventricles. American Journal of Psychiatry 1983; 140: 21–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal N. E., Sack D. A., James S. H., Barbara L. P., Mendelson W. B., Tamarkin L., Wehr T. A. Seasonal affective disorder and phototherapy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1986; 453: 260–269
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandyk R. Pineal melatonin functions: Possible relevance to Parkinson's disease. International Journal of Neuroscience, (in press)
   Google Scholar
• Sandyk R. Serotonergic mechanisms in levodopa-induced “on-off” and sleep disorders in Parkinson's disease. International Journal of Neuroscience 1988; 43: 207–213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandyk R. Pineal gland and the mechanisms of tardive dyskinesia. International Journal of Neuroscience, (in press a)
   Google Scholar
• Sandyk R., Fisher H. The protective function of the pineal gland in tardive dyskinesia. International Journal of Neuroscience 1988; 43: 215–218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandyk R., Fisher H. Increased incidence and severity of neuroleptic-induced movement disorder in pinealectomized rats. International Journal of Neuroscience 1989; 48: 303–308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Souetre E., Salvati E., Belugou J. L., Robert P., Brunet G., Darcourt G. Antidepressant effect of 5-methoxypsoralen: A preliminary report. Psychopharmacology 1988; 95: 430–431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens J., Wilson K., Foote W. GABA blockade, dopamine and schizophrenia: Experimental studies in the cat. Psychopharmacologica 1974; 39: 105–119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens J. R. Eye blink and schizophrenia: Psychosis or tardive dyskinesia?. American Journal of Psychiatry 1978; 135: 223–226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tolosa E. S., Klawans H. L. Meige's disease—a clinical form of facial convulsions, bilateral and medial. Archives of Neurology 1979; 36: 635–637
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weinberger D. R., Bigelow L. B., Kleinman J. E. Cerebral ventricular enlargement in chronic schizophrenia: association with poor response to treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 1980; 37: 11–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wirz-Justice A., Da Prada M., Reme C. Circadian rhythm in rat retinal dopamine. Neuroscience Letters 1984; 45: 21–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zisapel N., Laudon M. Dopamine release induced by electrical field stimulation of rat hypothalamus in vitro inhibition by melatonin. Biochemistry Biophysics Research Communication 1982; 104: 1610–1616
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zisapel N., Egozi Y., Laudon M. Inhibition of dopamine release by melatonin: regional distribution in the rat brain. Brain Research 1982; 246: 161–163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar