Hepatitis C: Virology, Epidemiology, Clinical Course, and Treatment

References

• Choo Q, Kuo G, Weiner A, Overby L, Bradley D, Houghton M. Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome. Science 1989; 244: 359–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiland O, Berg J, Bjorvatn B, Flehmig B, Lundbergh P. Acute viral hepatitis A, B and non-A, non-B in Stockholm in the 1950s and in the 1970s: a comparison. Infection 1981; 9: 268–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alter M, Hadler S, Judson F, et al. Risk factors for acute non-A, non-B hepatitis in the United States and association with hepatitis C virus infection. JAMA 1990; 264: 2231–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choo Q-L, Richman K, Han J H, et al. Genetic organization and diversity of the hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1991; 88: 2451–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houghton M, Weiner A, Han J, Kuo G, Choo Q L. Molecular biology of the hepatitis C virusis: implications for diagnosis, development and control of viral disease. Hepatology 1991; 14: 381–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuo G, Choo Q, Alter H, et al. An assay for circulating antibodies to a major etiologic virus of human non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science 1989; 244: 362–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley D. Hepatitis non-A, non-B viruses become identified as hepatitis C and E viruses. Prog Med Virol 1990; 37: 101–35
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Der Poel C, Cuypers H, Reesink H, et al. Confirmation of hepatitis C virus infection by new four-antigen recombinant immunoblot assay. Lancet 1991; 337: 317–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattsson L, Gutierrez R, Dawson G, Lesniewski R, Mushahwar I, Weiland O. Antibodies to recombinant and synthetic peptides derived from the hepatitis C virus genome in long-term-studied patients with posttransfusion hepatitis C. Scand J Gastroenterol 1991; 26: 1257–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kato N, Ohkoshi S, Shimotoho K. Japanese isolates of the non-A, non-B hepatitis viral genome show sequence variations from the original isolate in the USA. Proc Jpn Acad 1989; 65B: 219–23
   Google Scholar
• Simmonds P, Zhang L, Watson, et al. Hepatitis C quantification and sequencing in blood products, haemophiliacs, and drug users. Lancet 1990; 336: 1469–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dienstag J. Non-A, non-B hepatitis I. Recognition, epidemiology, and clinical features. Gastroenterology 1983; 85: 439–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berman M, Alter H, Ishak K, Purcell R, Jones E. The chronic sequelae of non-A, non-B hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 1979; 91: 1–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattsson L, Åberg B, Weiland O, Sellman M, Davilén J. Non-A, non-B hepatitis after open-heart surgery in Stockholm: declining incidence after introduction of restrictions for blood donations due to the human immunodeficiency virus. Scand J Infect Dis 1988; 20: 371–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattsson L. Chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis with special reference to the transfusion-associated form. Scand J Infect Dis 1989; 21: 1–55, Suppl 59
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koretz R, Coleman E, Abbey H, Gitnick G. Non-A, non-B post-transfusion hepatitis: When is a disease a dis-ease? [Abstract]. Hepatology 1989; 10: 645
   Google Scholar
• Kiyosawa K, Sodeyama T, Tanaka E, et al. Interrelationship of blood transfusion, non-A, non-B hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma: analysis by detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 1990; 12: 671–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Björkander J, Cunningham-Rundles C, Lundin P, Olsson R, Söderström R, Hanson L. Intravenous immunoglobulin prophylaxis causing liver damage in 16 of 77 patients with hypogammaglobulinemia or IgG subclass deficiency. Am J Med 1988; 84: 107–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hay C, Preston F, Triger D, Underwood J. Progressive liver disease in haemophilia: an underestimated problem?. Lancet 1985; 1: 1495–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin P, Di Bisceglie A, Kassianides C, Lisker-Melman M, Hoofnagle J. Rapidly progressive non-A, non-B hepatitis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Gastroenterology 1989; 97: 1559–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dienstag J, Alter H. Non-A, non-B hepatitis: evolving epidemiologic and clinical perspective. Semin Liv Dis 1986; 6: 67–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wejstål R, Hermodsson S, Norkrans G. Long-term follow-up of chronic hepatitis non-A, non-B—with special reference to hepatitis C. Liver 1991; 11: 143–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colombo M, Kuo G, Choo Q, et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Italian patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 1989; 2: 1006–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruix J, Barrera J, Calvet X, et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Spanish patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatic cirrhosis. Lancet 1989; 2: 1004–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteban J, Esteban R, Viladomiu L, et al. Hepatitis C virus antibodies among risk groups in Spain. Lancet 1989; 2: 294–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thaler M, Park C-K, Landers D, et al. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1991; 338: 17–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wejstål R, Hermodsson S, Iwarson S, Norkrans G. Mother to infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Virol 1990; 30: 178–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cilia G, Pérez-Trallero E, Iturriza M, Arrizabalaga J, Iribarren J. Possibility of heterosexual transmission of hepatitis C virus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1991; 10: 533–4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schulman S, Grillner L. Antibodies against hepatitis C in a population of Swedish haemophiliacs and heterosexual partners. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 22: 393–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alter M, Coleman P, Alexander J, et al. Importance of heterosexual activity in the transmission of hepatitis B and non-A, non-B hepatitis. JAMA 1989; 262: 1201–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiyosawa K, Sodeyama T, Tanaka E, et al. Hepatitis C in hospital employees with needlestick injuries. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115: 367–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takamatsu K, Koyanagi Y, Okita K, Yamamoto N. Hepatitis C virus RNA in saliva. Lancet 1990; 336: 1515
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang J-T, Wang T-H, Lin J-T, Sheu J-C, Lin S-M, Chen D-S. Hepatitis C virus RNA in saliva of patients with posttransfusion hepatitis C infection. Lancet 1991; 337: 48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dusheiko G, Smith M, Scheuer P. Hepatitis C virus transmitted by human bite. Lancet 1990; 336: 503–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farci P, Alter H, Wong D, et al. A long-term study of hepatitis C virus replication in non-A, non-B hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 98–104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alter H, Purcell R, Shih J, et al. Detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus in prospectively followed transfusion recipients with acute and chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 1494–1500
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roggendorf M, Deinhardt F, Rasshofer R, et al. Antibodies to hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1989; 2: 324–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sönnerborg A, Abebe A, Strannegård Ö. Hepatitis C virus infection in individuals with or without human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Infection 1990; 18: 347–51
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weiland O, Lindh G, Mattsson L, Schvarcz R, von Sydow M. Hepatit C en vanlig orsak till kronisk hepatit i Sverige [in Swedish]. Lakartidningen 1990; 34: 2567–8
   Google Scholar
• Tor J, Llibre J, Carbonell M, et al. Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus and its relation with hepatitis B virus and HIV. Br Med J 1990; 301: 1130–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widell A, Hansson B, Berntorp E, et al. Antibody to a hepatitis C virus related protein among patients at high risk for hepatitis B. Scand J Infect Dis 1991; 23: 19–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremolada F, Casarin C, Tagger A, et al. Antibody to hepatitis A virus in post-transfusion hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 1991; 114: 277–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiese M, Lenz K, Guggenmoos-Holzmann I, Stark K, Bienzle U. Epidemiology of hepatitis C in homosexual men. Klin Wochenschr 1990; 68: 1082
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lin-Chu M, Tsai S, Watanabe J, Nishioka K. The prevalence of anti-HCV among Chinese voluntary blood-donors in Taiwan. Transfusion 1990; 30: 471–3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nishimura Y, Yamagushi K, Williams N, et al. Antibodies to hepatitis C virus in Japanese blood donors and in hospital personnel. Transfusion 1990; 30: 667–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sirchia G, Almini D, Bellobuono A, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus antibodies in Italian blood donors. Vox Sang 1990; 59: 26–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Esteban J, Gonzalez A, Hernandez J, et al. Evaluation of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in a study of transfusion-associated hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1107–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hetland G, Skaug K, Larsen J, Maeland A, Stromme J, Storvold G. Prevalence of anti-HCV in Norwegian blood donors with anti-HBc or increased ALT levels. Transfusion 1990; 30: 776–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wantzin P, Krogsgaard K, Dickmeiss E. Screening af danske bloddonorer for antistof rettet mod Hepatitis C virus [in Danish]. Ugeskr Laeger 1990; 152: 2846–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lindholm A, Hermodsson S, Norkrans G, Iwarson S. Nytt serologiskt test ger möjlighet att diagnosticera hepatit C [in Swedish]. Lakartidningen 1990; 87: 40–1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Janot C, Couroucé A, Maniez M. Antibodies to hepatitis C virus in French blood donors. Lancet 1989; 2: 796–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kühnl P, Seidl S, Stangel W, Beyer J, Sibrowski W, Flik J. Antibody to hepatitis C virus in German blood donors. Lancet 1989; 2: 324
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menitove J, Richards W, Destree M. Early US experience with anti-HCV kit in blood donors. Lancet 1990; 336: 244–5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stevens C, Taylor P, Pindyck J, et al. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus: a preliminary study in volunteer blood donors. JAMA 1990; 263: 49–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattsson L, Grillner L, von Sydow M, Bergdahl S, Weiland O. Seroconversion to hepatitis C virus antibodies in patients with acute posttransfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis in Sweden. Infection 1991; 19: 309–12
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krogsgaard K, Wantzin P, Mathiesen L, Sonne J, Ring-Larsen H. The Copenhagen Hepatitis Acuta Programme. Early appearance of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in community acquired acute non-A, non-B hepatitis is associated with progression to chronic liver disease. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 22: 399–402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Poel C, Reesink H, Schaasberg W, et al. Infectivity of blood seropositive for hepatitis C virus antibodies. Lancet 1990; 335: 558–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garson J, Tedder R, Briggs M, et al. Detection of hepatitis C viral sequences in blood donations by ‘nested’ polymerase chain reaction and prediction of infectivity. Lancet 1990; 335: 1419–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebeling F, Naukkarinen R, Lcikola J. Post-transfusion hepatitis C in Finland. Transfusion 1991; 1: 109–13
   Google Scholar
• McFarlane I, Smith H, Johnson P, Bray G, Vergani D, Williams R. Hepatitis C virus antibodies in chronic active hepatitis: pathogenetic factor or false-positive result?. Lancet 1990; 335: 754–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schvarcz R, von Sydow M, Weiland O. Autoimmune chronic active hepatitis: changing reactivity for antibodies to hepatitis C virus after immunosuppressive treatment. Scand J Gastroenterol 1990; 25: 1175–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrumpf E, Elgjo K, Fausa O, Haukenes G, Kvale D, Rollag H. The signficance of anti-hepatitis C virus antibodies measured in chronic liver disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1990; 25: 1169–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Bisceglie A, Alter H, Kuo G, Houghton M, Hoofnagle J. Detection of antibody to hepatitis C virus in patients with various chronic liver diseases [Abstract]. Hepatology 1989; 10: 581
   Google Scholar
• Fusconi M, Lenzi M, Ballardini G, et al. Anti-HCV testing in autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis. Lancet 1990; 336: 823
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Theilmann L, Blazek M, Goeser T, Gmelin K, Kommerell B, Fiehn W. False-positive anti-HCV tests in rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 1990; 335: 1346
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aceti A, Taliani G, De Bac C, Sebastiani A. Anti-HCV false positivity in malaria. Lancet 1990; 336: 1442–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boudart D, Lucas J-C, Muller J-Y, Le Carrer D, Planchon B, Harousseau J-L. False-positive hepatitis C virus antibody tests in paraproteinaemia. Lancet 1990; 336: 63
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ikeda Y, Toda G, Hashimoto N, Kurokawa K. Antibody to superoxide dismutase, autoimmune hepatitis, and antibody tests for hepatitis C virus. Lancet 1990; 335: 1345–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ellis L, Brown D, Conradie J, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis C in South Africa: detection of anti-HCV in recent and stored serum. J Med Virol 1990; 32: 249–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mortimer P, Cohen B, Litton P, et al. Hepatitis C virus antibody. Lancet 1989; 2: 798
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wong D, Diwan A, Rosen L, et al. Non-specificity of anti-HCV test for seroepidemiological analysis. Lancet 1990; 336: 750–1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ebeling F, Naukkarinen R, Leikola J. Recombinant immunoblot assay for hepatitis C virus antibody as predictor of infectivity. Lancet 1990; 335: 982–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schvarcz R, von Sydow M, Weiland O. Positive reactivity with anti-HCV ELISA in patients with autoimmune hepatitis- not confirmed with a neutralization test. Scand J Infect Dis 1991; 23: 127–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choo Q-L, Weiner A, Overby L, Kuo G, Houghton M, Bradley D. Hepatitis C virus: the causative agent of viral non-A, non-B hepatitis. Br Med Bull 1990; 46: 423–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattsson L, Grillner L, Weiland O. Seroconversion to hepatitis C virus antibodies in patients with acute posttransfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis in Sweden with a second generation test. Scand J Infect Dis 1992, In press
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marcellin P MM-P, Boyer N, Pouteau M, Aumont P, Erlinger S, Benhamou J-P. Second generation (RIBA) tests in diagnosis of chronic hepatitis C. Lancet 1991; 337: 551–2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craxi A, Fiorentino G, Di Marco V, et al. Second generation tests in diagnosis of chronic hepatitis C. Lancet 1991; 337: 1354
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garson J, Ring C, Tuke P, Tedder R. Enhanced detection by PCR of hepatitis C virus RNA. Lancet 1990; 336: 878–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garson J, Tuke P, Makris M, et al. Demonstration of viremia patterns in haemophiliacs treated with hepatitis-C-virus-con-taminated factor VIII concentrates. Lancet 1990; 336: 1022–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlauder G, Leverenz G, Mattsson L, Weiland O, Mushahwar I. Detection of hepatitis C viral RNA by the polymerase chain reaction in serum of patients with post-transfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis. J Virol Methods, In press
   Google Scholar
• Brillanti S, Garson J, Tuke P, et al. Effect of alfa-interferon therapy on hepatitis C viraemia in community-acquired chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis: A quantitative polymerase chain reaction study. J Med Virol 1991; 34: 136–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chayama K, Saitoh S, Arase Y, et al. Effect of interferon administration on serum hepatitis C virus RNA in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 1991; 13: 1040–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoofnagle J, Mullen K, Jones D, et al. Treatment of chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis with recombinant human alpha interferon. A preliminary report. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 1575–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Causse X, Godinot H, Chevalier M, et al. Comparison of 1 or 3 MU of interferon alfa-2b and placebo in patients with chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1991; 101: 497–502
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Bisceglie A, Martin P, Kassianides C, et al. Recombinant interferon alfa therapy for chronic hepatitis C. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 1506–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis G, Balart L, Schiff E, et al. Treatment of chronic hepatitis C with recombinant interferon alfa. A multicenter randomized, controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 1501–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schvarcz R, Weiland O, Wejstål R, Norkrans G, Foberg U, Frydén A. A randomized controlled open study of interferon alpha-2b treatment of chronic non-A, non-B posttransfusion hepatitis: no correlation of outcome to presence of hepatitis C virus antibodies. Scand J Infect Dis 1989; 21: 617–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tine F, Magrin S, Craxi A, Pagliaro L. Interferon for non-A, non-B chronic hepatitis. A meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials. J Hepatol 1991; 13: 192–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schvarcz R, Glaumann H, Weiland O, Norkrans G, Wejstål R, Frydén A. Histological outcome in interferon alpha-2b treated patients with chronic posttransfusion non-A, non-B hepatitis. Liver 1991; 11: 30–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marcellin P, Boyer N, Giostra E, et al. Recombinant human alfa-interferon in patients with chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis: a multicenter randomized controlled trial from France. Hepatology 1991; 13: 393–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schvarcz R, Glaumann H, Weiland O, Norkrans G, Wejstål R, Frydén A. Interferon alpha-2b treatment of chronic posttransfusion non-A, non-B/C hepatitis: long-term outcome and effect of increased interferon doses in non-responders. Scand J Infect Dis 1991; 23: 413–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferenci P, Vogel W, Pristautz H, et al. One-year treatment of chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis with interferon alfa-2b. J Hepatol 1990; 11: 50–3, Suppl
   Google Scholar
• Saracco G, Rosina M, Torrani Cerenzia M, et al. A randomized controlled trial of interferon alfa-2b as therapy for chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis. J Hepatol 1990; 11: 43–9, Suppl
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marcellin P, Giostra E, Boyer N, Loriot M-A, Martinot-Peignoux M, Benhamou J-P. Is the response to recombinant alpha interferon related to the presence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in patients with chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis?. J Hepatol 1990; 11: 77–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brook M, McDonald J, Karayiannis P, et al. Randomised controlled trial of interferon alfa 2A (rbe) (Roferon-A) for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection: factors that influence response. Gut 1989; 30: 1116–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacyna M, Brooks M, Loke R, Main J, Murray-Lyon I, Thomas H. Randomized controlled trial of interferon alfa (lymfo-blastoid interferon) in chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis. Br Med J 1989; 298: 80–2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sáez-Royuela F, Porres J, Moreno A, et al. High doses of recombinant alfa-interferon or gamma-interferon for chronic hepatitis C: a randomized, controlled trial. Hepatology 1991; 13: 327–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes P, Lopez W, Balart L. Effects of short-term cor ticosteroid therapy in patients with chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis [Abstract]. Gastroenterology 1987; 92: 1783
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pappas S, Hoofnagle J, Young N, Straus S, Jones E. Treatment of chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis with acyclovir: pilot study. J Med Virol 1985; 15: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoofnagle J. Chronic hepatitis: the role of corticosteroids. Viral hepatitis, W Szmuness, H J Alter, J E Maynard. Franklin Press, Philadelphia 1982; 573–83, 1981 international symposium
   Google Scholar
• Reichard O, Andersson J, Schvarcz R, Weiland O. Ribavirin treatment for chronic hepatitis C. Lancet 1991; 337: 1058–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prohaska W, Kleesiek K. Treatment of chronic hepatitis C with inosine pranobex. Lancet 1991; 338: 390–1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar