Opioid Detoxification and Naltrexone Induction Strategies: Recommendations for Clinical Practice

REFERENCES

• Hser YI, Hoffman V, Grella CE, Anglin MD. A 33-year follow-up of narcotic addicts. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58(5):503–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson JR, Ronald PJ, Raab GM, Ross AJ, Parpia T. Deaths HIV infection, abstinence, and other outcomes in a cohort of injecting drug users followed up for 10 years. BMJ 1994; 309(6951):369–372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tai B, Blaine J. Naltrexone: An antagonist therapy for heroin addiction. NIDA Meeting Summary, 12–13 November 1997. Available at http://archives.drugabuse.gov/meetings/naltrexone.html. Last accessed on March 4, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Mayet S, Farrell M, Ferri MMF, Amato L, Davoli M. Psychosocial treatment for opiate abuse and dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 4:CD004330.
   Google Scholar
• Amato L, Minozzi S, Davoli M, Vecchi S, Ferri MM, Mayet S. Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments versus pharmacological treatments for opioid detoxification. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 4:CD005031.
   Google Scholar
• Wang D, Sun X, Sadee W. Different effects of opioid antagonists on mu-, delta-, and kappa-opioid receptors with and without agonist pretreatment. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007; 321:544–552.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez JP, Brogden RN. Naltrexone: A review of the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in the management of opioid dependence. Drugs 1988; 35:192–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin WR, Jasinski DR, Mansky PA. Naltrexone, an antagonist for the treatment of heroin dependence. Effects in man. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1973; 28(6):784–791.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preston KL, Silverman K, Umbricht A, DeJesus A, Montoya ID, Schuster CR. Improvement in naltrexone treatment compliance with contingency management. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999; 54:127–135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleber HD, Kosten TR, Gaspari J, Topazian M. Nontolerance to the opioid antagonism of naltrexone. Biol Psychiatry 1985; 20:66–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe JH, Martin WR. Opioid analgesics and antagonists. In Goodman and Gilman’s the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Goodman Gilman A, Rall TW, Nies AS, Taylor P, eds. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1990; 485–521.
   Google Scholar
• Kosten TR, Morgan C, Kleber HD. Treatment of heroin addicts using buprenorphine. Am J Drug Alc Abuse 1991; 17(2):119–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rounsaville BJ. Can psychotherapy rescue naltrexone treatment of opioid addiction? In Potentiating the Efficacy of Medications, NIDA Research Monograph. Onken LS, Blaine JD, eds. ( vol. 105). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1995; 37–52.
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor PG, Carroll KM, Shi JM, Schottenfeld RS, Kosten TR, Rounsaville BJ. Three methods of opioid detoxification in a primary care setting: A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 1997; 127:526–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stine SM, Kosten TR. Pharmacologic interventions for opioid dependence. In Principles of Addiction Medicine. Ries RK, Fiellin DA, Miller SC, Saitz R, eds. (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Carroll KM, Sinha R, Nich C, Babuscio T, Rounsaville BJ. Contingency management to enhance naltrexone treatment of opioid dependence: A randomized clinical trial of reinforcement magnitude. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 10:54–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fals-Stewart W, O’Farrell TJ. Behavioral family counseling and naltrexone for male opioid-dependent patients. J Consult Clin Psychol 2003; 71:432−442.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minozzi S, Amato L, Vecchi S, Davoli M, Kirchmayer U, Verster A. Oral naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; 2:CD001333.
   Google Scholar
• Nunes EV, Rothenberg JL, Sullivan MA, Carpenter KM, Kleber HD. Behavioral therapy to augment oral naltrexone for opioid dependence: A ceiling on effectiveness? Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2006; 32:503–517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comer SD, Sullivan MA, Yu E, Rothenberg JL, Kleber HD, Kampman K, Dackis C, O’Brien CP. Injectable, sustained-release naltrexone for the treatment of opioid dependence: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63(2):210–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulse GK, Morris N, Arnold-Reed D, Tait RJ. Improving clinical outcomes in treating heroin dependence: Randomized, controlled trial of oral or implant naltrexone. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009; 66(10):1108–1115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupitsky EM, Blokhina EA. Long-acting depot formulations of naltrexone for heroin dependence: A review. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2010; 23(3):210–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garbutt JC, Kranzler HR, O’Malley SS, Gastfriend DR, Pettinati HM, Silverman BL, Loewy JW, Ehrich EW,. Vivitrex Study Group. Efficacy and tolerability of long-acting injectable naltrexone for alcohol dependence: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 293(13):1617–1625.
   Google Scholar
• O’Malley SS, Garbutt JC, Gastfriend DR, Dong Q, Kranzler HR. Efficacy of extended-release naltrexone in alcohol-dependent patients who are abstinent before treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2007; 27:507–512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupitsky E, Nunes EV, Ling W, Illeperuma A, Gastfriend DR, Silverman BL. Injectable extended-release naltrexone for opioid dependence: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2011; 377:1506–1513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupitsky E, Zvartau E, Woody G. Use of naltrexone to treat opioid addiction in a country in which methadone and buprenorphine are not available. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2010; 12(5):448–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupitsky EM, Zvartau EE, Masalov DV, Tsoi MV, Burakov AM, Egorova VY, Didenko TY, Romanova TN, Ivanova EB, Bespalov AY, Verbitskaya EV, Neznanov NG, Grinenko AY, O’Brian CP, Woody GE. Naltrexone for heroin dependence treatment in St. Petersburg, Russia. J Subst Abuse Treat 2004; 26(4):285–294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christie MJ. Cellular neuroadaptations to chronic opioids: Tolerance, withdrawal and addiction. Br J Pharmacol 2008; 154:384–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nestler EJ. Historical review: Molecular and cellular mechanisms of opiate and cocaine addiction. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2004; 25:210–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang G, Kosten TR. Detoxification, section VI, chapter 35. In Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Lowinson JH, Ruiz P, Millman RB, Langrod JG, eds. (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005; 579–587.
   Google Scholar
• Kosten TR, O’Connor PG. Current concepts-management of drug withdrawal. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1786–1795.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vivitrol® US prescribing information. Available at http://www.vivitrol.com/hcp/Vivitrol_Info/default.aspx. Last accessed on March 4, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Collins ED, Kleber HD, Whittington RA, Heitler NE. Anesthesia-assisted vs buprenorphine- or clonidine-assisted heroin detoxification and naltrexone induction: A randomized trial. JAMA 2005; 294:903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Health–Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office. Rapid Detoxification from Opioids-Guidelines. North Sydney, NSW: Department of Health NSW; 2005. Available at www.health.nsw.gov.au. Accessed on December 15, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan MA, Nunes EV. New-onset mania and psychosis following heroin detoxification and naltrexone maintenance. Am J Addict 2005; 14:486–487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleber HD, Gold MS, Riordan CE. The use of clonidine in detoxification from opiates. Bull Narc 1980; 32:1–10.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gold MS, Pottash AC, Sweeney DR, Kleber HD. Opiate withdrawal using clonidine. A safe, effective, and rapid nonopiate treatment. JAMA 1980; 243(4):343–346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold MS, Pottash AL, Sweeney DR, Kleber HD. Efficacy of clonidine in opiate withdrawal: A study of thirty patients. Drug Alcohol Depend 1980; 6(4):201–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor JR, Elsworth JD, Garcia EJ, Grant SJ, Roth RH, Redmond DE. Clonidine infusions into the locus coeruleus attenuate behavioral and neurochemical changes associated with naloxone-precipitated withdrawal. Psychopharmacology 1988; 96(1):121–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu E, Miotto K, Akerele E, Montgomery A, Elkashef A, Walsh R, Montoya I, Fischman MW, Collins J, McSherry F, Boardman K, Davies DK, O’Brien CP, Ling W, Kleber H, Herman BH. A Phase 3 placebo-controlled, double-blind, multi-site trial of the alpha-2-adrenergic agonist, lofexidine, for opioid withdrawal. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008; 97(1–2):158–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gowing L, Farrell M, Ali R, White JM. Alpha2-adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009: CD002024.
   Google Scholar
• Amato L, Davoli M, Minozzi S, Ali R, Ferri M. Methadone at tapered doses for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 3:CD003409.
   Google Scholar
• Gowing L, Ali R, White JM. Buprenorphine for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (Issue 3):CD002025. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD002025.pub4.
   Google Scholar
• Bickel WK, Stitzer ML, Bigelow GE, Liebson IA, Jasinski DR, Johnson RE. A clinical trial of buprenorphine: Comparison with methadone in the detoxification of heroin addicts. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988; 43(1):72–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron D, Allen D, Galway K. A pilot study of the effectiveness of buprenorphine and methadone as detoxification agents when choice is given to the consumer. J Sub Use 2001; 6:101–109.
   Google Scholar
• Ling W, Amass L, Shoptaw S, Annon JJ, Hillhouse M, Babcock D, Brigham G, Harrer J, Reid M, Muir J, Buchan B, Orr D, Woody G, Krejci J, Ziedonis D,. Buprenorphine Study Protocol Group. A multi-center randomized trial of buprenorphine-naloxone versus clonidine for opioid detoxification: Findings from the National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network. Addiction 2005; 100:1090–1100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lintzeris N. Buprenorphine dosing regime in the management of out-patient heroin withdrawal. Drug Alcohol Rev 2002; 21:39–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lintzeris N, Bell J, Bammer G, Jolley DJ, Rushworth L. A randomized controlled trial of buprenorphine in the management of short-term ambulatory heroin withdrawal. Addiction 2002; 97(11):1395–1404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rounsaville BJ, Kosten T, Kleber H. Success and failure at outpatient opioid detoxification: Evaluating the process of clonidine- and methadone-assisted withdrawal. J Nerv Ment Dis 1985; 173:103–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woody GE, Kane V, Lewis K, Thompson R. Premature deaths following discharge from methadone maintenance: A replication. J Addict Med 2007; 1(4):180–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziedonis DM, Amass L, Steinberg M, Woody G, Krejci J, Annon JJ, Cohen AJ, Waite-O’Brien N, Stine SM, McCarty D, Reid MS, Brown LS, Jr, Maslansky R, Winhusen T, Babcock D, Brigham G, Muir J, Orr D, Buchan BJ, Horton T, Ling W. Predictors of outcome for short-term medically supervised opioid withdrawal during a randomized, multicenter trial of buprenorphine-naloxone and clonidine in the NIDA clinical trials network drug and alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 99:28–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amass L, Ling W, Freese TE, Reiber C, Annon JJ, Cohen AJ, McCarty D, Reid MS, Brown LS, Clark C, Ziedonis DM, Krejci J, Stine S, Winhusen T, Brigham G, Babcock D, Muir JA, Buchan BJ, Horton T. Bringing buprenorphine–naloxone detoxification to community treatment providers: The NIDA Clinical Trials Network field Experience. Am J Addict 2004; 13: S42–S66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn KE, Sigmon SC, Strain EC, Heil SH, Higgins ST. The association between outpatient buprenorphine detoxification duration and clinical treatment outcomes: A review. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011; DOI:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.033.
   Google Scholar
• Mattick RP, Kimber J, Breen C, Davoli M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 2:CD002207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss RD, Potter JS, Provost SE, Huang Z, Jacobs P, Hasson A, Lindblad R, Connery HS, Prather K, Ling W. A multi-site, two-phase, Prescription Opioid Addiction Treatment Study (POATS): Rationale, design, and methodology. Contemp Clin Trials 2010; 31(2):189–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stine SM, Kosten TR. Use of drug combinations in treatment of opioid withdrawal. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992; 12:203–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothenberg JL, Sullivan MA, Church SH, Seracini A, Collins E, Kleber HD, Nunes EV. Behavioral naltrexone therapy: An integrated treatment for opiate dependence. J Subst Abuse Treat 2002; 23(4):351–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vining E, Kosten TR, Kleber HD. Clinical utility of rapid clonidine-naltrexone detoxification for opioid abusers. Br J Addict 1988; 83(5):567–575.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O’Connor PG, Waugh ME, Carroll KM, Rounsaville BJ, Diagkogiannis IA, Schottenfeld RS. Primary care-based ambulatory opioid detoxification: The results of a clinical trial. J Gen Intern Med 1995; 10:255–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umbricht A, Montoya ID, Hoover DR, Demuth KL, Chiang CT, Preston KL. Naltrexone shortened opioid detoxification with buprenorphine. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999; 56(3):181–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisaga A, Sullivan MA, Cheng W, Carpenter KM, Mariani JM, Levin FR, Raby WN, Nunes EV. A placebo controlled trial of memantine as an adjunct to oral naltrexone for opioid dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011; Jun 28. [Epub ahead of print].
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor PG, Kosten TR. Rapid and ultrarapid opioid detoxification techniques. JAMA 1998; 279:229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer C, Rezac H, Bailey C. Opioid withdrawal and naltrexone induction in 48–72 hours with minimal dropout, using a modification of the naltrexone-clonidine technique. Br J Psychiatry 1988; 153:340–343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer C. Ultra-rapid antagonist-precipitated opiate detoxification under general anaesthesia or sedation. Addict Biol 1997; 2:291–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabinowitz J, Cohen H, Tarrasch R, Kotler M. Compliance to naltrexone treatment after ultra-rapid opiate detoxification: An open label naturalistic study. Drug Alcohol Depend 1997; 47:77–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cucchia AT, Monnat M, Spagnoli J, Ferrero F, Bertschy G. Ultra-rapid opiate detoxification using deep sedation with oral midazolam: Short and long-term results. Drug Alcohol Depend 1998; 52:243–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gowing L, Ali R, White JM. Opioid antagonists under heavy sedation or anaesthesia for opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; Jan 20(1):CD002022.
   Google Scholar
• Kienbaum P, Thurauf N, Michel MC, Scherbaum N, Gastpar M, Peters J. Profound increase in epinephrine concentration in plasma and cardiovascular stimulation after mu-opioid receptor blockade in opioid- addicted patients during barbiturate-induced anesthesia for acute detoxification. Anesthesiology 1998; 88:1154–1161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elman I, D’Ambra MN, Krause S, Breiter H, Kane M, Morris R, Tuffy L, Gastfriend DR. Ultrarapid opioid detoxification: Effects on cardiopulmonary physiology, stress hormones and clinical outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend 2001; 61(2):163–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfab R, Hirtl C, Zilker T. Opiate detoxification under anesthesia: No apparent benefit but suppression of thyroid hormones and risk of pulmonary and renal failure. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999; 37:43–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton RJ, Olmedo RE, Shah S, . Complications of ultrarapid opioid detoxification with subcutaneous naltrexone pellets. Acad Emerg Med 2002; 9(1):63–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resnick RB, Washton AM, Thomas MA, Kestenbaum RS. Naltrexone in the treatment of opiate dependence. NIDA Res Monogr 1978; 19:321–332.
   Google Scholar
• O’Brien CP, Koob GF, Mee-Lee D, Rosenthal RN. New developments in addiction treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 2006; 67:1801–1812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chuang E, Wells R, Alexander JA, Friedmann PD, Lee IH. Factors associated with use of ASAM criteria and service provision in a national sample of outpatient substance abuse treatment units. J Addict Med 2009; 3:39–150.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gossop M, Johns A, Green L. Opiate withdrawal: Inpatient versus outpatient programmes and preferred versus random assignment to treatment. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986; 293:103–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips GT, Gossop M, Bradley B. The influence of psychological factors on the opiate withdrawal syndrome. Br J Psych 1986l; 149:235–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peachy JE, Lei H. Assessment of opioid dependence with naloxone. Br J Addiction 1988; 83(2):193–201.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wesson DR, Ling W. The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS). J Psychoactive Drugs 2003; 35(2):253–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariani JJ, Sullivan M, Bisaga A, Carpenter K, Murray KA, Levin FR, Nunes EV. Naltrexone-induced protracted opioid withdrawal. Poster presented at CPDD 71st Annual Meeting, Reno, Nevada, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Kunøe N, Lobmaier P, Vederhus JK, Hjerkinn B, Gossop M, Hegstad S, Kristensen Ø, Waal H. Challenges to antagonist blockade during sustained-release naltrexone treatment. Addiction 2010; 105(9):1633–1639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishman M. Precipitated withdrawal during maintenance opioid blockade with extended release naltrexone. Addiction 2008; 103(8):1399–1401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comer SD, Sullivan MA, Hulse GK. Sustained-release naltrexone: Novel treatment for opioid dependence. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2007; 16(8):1285–1294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan MA, Garawi F, Bisaga A, Comer SD, Carpenter K, Raby WN, Anen SJ, Brooks AC, Jiang H, Akerele E, Nunes EV. Management of relapse in naltrexone maintenance for heroin dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 91(2–3):289–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everly JJ, DeFulio A, Koffarnus MN, Leoutsakos JM, Donlin WD, Aklin WM, Umbricht A, Fingerhood M, Bigelow GE, Silverman K. Employment-based reinforcement of adherence to depot naltrexone in unemployed opioid-dependent adults: A randomized controlled trial. Addiction 2011; 106(7):1309–1318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabowski J, O’Brien CP, Greenstein R, Ternes J, Long M, Steinberg-Donato S. Effects of contingent payment on compliance with a naltrexone regimen. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1979; 6(3):355–365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosten TR, Kleber HD. Strategies to improve compliance with narcotic antagonists. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1984; 10(2):249–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galanter M, Brook D. Network therapy for addiction: Bringing family and peer support into office practice. Int J Group Psychother 2001; 51(1):101–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupitsky EM, Zvartau EE, Masalov DV, Tsoy MV, Burakov AM, Egorova VY, Didenko TY, Romanova TN, Ivanova EB, Bespalov AY, Verbitskaya EV, Neznanov NG, Grinenko AY, O’Brien CP, Woody GE. Naltrexone with or without fluoxetine for preventing relapse to heroin addiction in St. Petersburg, Russia. J Subst Abuse Treat 2006; 31(4):319–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ockert DM, Volpicelli JR, Baier AR, Coons EE, Fingesten A. A nonopioid procedure for outpatient opioid detoxification. J Addiction Med 2011; 5(2):110–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darke S, Ross J, Zador D, Sunjic S. Heroin-related deaths in New South Wales, Australia, 1992-1996. Drug Alcohol Depend 2000; 60:141–150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seal KL, Kral AH, Gee L, Moore LD, Bluthenthal RN, Lorvick J, Edlin BR. Predictors and prevention of nonfatal overdose among street-recruited injection heroin users in the San Francisco Bay area, 1998–1999. Am J Pub Health 2001; 91:1842–1846.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binswanger IA, Stern MF, Deyo RA, Heagerty PJ, Cheadle A, Elmore JG, Koepsell TD. Release from prison: A high risk of death for former inmates. New Engl J Med 2007; 356:157–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinlock TW, Gordon MS, Schwartz RP, Fitzgerald TT, O’Grady K. A randomized clinical trial of methadone maintenance for prisoners: Results at twelve-months post-release. J Subst Abuse Treat 2009; 37:277–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulse GK, Tait RJ, Comer SD, Sullivan MA, Jacobs IG, Arnold-Reed D. Reducing hospital presentations for opioid overdose in patients treated with sustained-release naltrexone implants. Drug Alcohol Depend 2005; 79(3):351–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigmon SC, Dunn KE, Badger GF, Heil SH, Higgins ST. Brief buprenorphine detoxification for the treatment of prescription opioid dependence: A pilot study. Addict Behav 2009; 34:304–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerra G, Fantoma A, Zaimovic A. Naltrexone and buprenorphine combination in the treatment of opioid dependence. J Psychopharmacol 2006; 20(6):806–814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannelli P, Peindl KS, Wu LT. Pharmacological enhancement of naltrexone treatment for opioid dependence: A review. Subst Abuse Rehabil 2011; 2:113–123.
   Google Scholar