Docosahexaenoic acid is taken up by the inner segment of frog photoreceptors leading to an active synthesis of docosahexaenoyl inositol lipids: similarities in metabolism in vivo and in vitro

References

• Aveldaño de Caldironi M. I., Bazan N. G. Composition and biosynthesis of molecular species of retina phosphoglycerides. Neurochem. Int. 1980; 1: 81–392
   Google Scholar
• Fliesler S. J., Anderson R. E. Chemistry and metabolism of lipids in the vertebrate retina. Prog. Lipid Res. 1983; 22: 79–131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boesze-Battaglia K., Albert A. D. Fatty acid composition of bovine rod outer segment plasma membrane. Exp. Eye Res. 1989; 49: 699–701
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tinoco J., Babcock R., Hincenbergs I., Medwadowski B., Miljanich P. Linolenic acid deficiency: Changes in fatty acid patterns in female and male rats raised on a linolenic acid-deficient diet for two generations. Lipids 1978; 13: 6–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tinoco J. Dietary requirements and functions of α-linolenic acid in animals. Prog. Lipid Res. 1982; 21: 1–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler T. G., Benolken R. M., Anderson R. E. Visual membranes: Specificity of fatty acid precursors for the electrical response to illumination. Science 1975; 188: 1312–1314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuringer M., Connor W. E. N-3 fatty acids in the brain and retina: Evidence for their essentiality. Nutr. Rev. 1986; 44: 285–294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuringer M., Connor W. E., Lin D. S., Barstad L., Luck S. J. Biochemical and functional effects of prenatal and postnatal ω3 fatty acid deficiency on retina and brain in rhesus monkeys. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1986; 83: 4021–4025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uauy R. D., Birch D. G., Birch E. E., Tyson J. E., Hoffman D. R. Effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on retinal function of very-low-birth-weight neonates. Pediatr. Res. 1990; 28: 485–492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birch D. G., Birch E. E., Hoffman D. R., Uauy R. D. Retinal development in very-low-birth-weight infants fed diets differing in omega-3 fatty acids. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992; 33: 2365–2376
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birch E. E., Birch D. G., Hoffman D. R., Uauy R. Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992; 33: 3242–3253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott B. L., Bazan N. G. Membrane docosahexanoate is supplied to the developing brain and retina by the liver. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 1989; 86: 2903–2907
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal M. D. Fatty acid metabolism of isolated mammalian cells. Prog. Lipid Res. 1987; 26: 87–124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprecher H. Long chain fatty acid metabolism. ‘Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Human Nutrition’, U. Bracco, R. J. Deckelbaum. Raven Press, New York 1992; 13–24
   Google Scholar
• Bazan H. E.P., Careaga M. M., Sprecher H., Bazan N. G. Chain elongation and desaturation of eicosapentaenoate to docosahexaenoate and phospholipid labeling in the rat retina in vivo. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1982; 712: 123–128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore S. A., Yoder E., Spector A. A. Role of the blood-brain barrier in the formation of long-chain ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids from essential fatty acid precursors. J. Neurochem. 1990; 55: 391–402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore S. A., Yoder E., Murphy S., Dutton G. R., Spector A. A. Astrocytes, not neurons, produce docosahexaenoic acid (22:6ω-3) and arachidonic acid (20:4ω-6). J. Neurochem. 1991; 56: 518–524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wetzel M. G., Li J., Alvarez R. A., Anderson R. E., O'Brien P. J. Metabolism of linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in rat retinas and rod outer segments. Exp. Eye Res. 1991; 53: 437–446
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazan N. G., Birkle D. L., Reddy T. S. Biochemical and nutritional aspects of the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids and phospholipids in experimental models of retinal degeneration. ‘Retinal Degeneration: Experimental and Clinical Studies’, M. M. La Vail, R. E. Anderson, J. G. Holly field. Alan R. Liss, New York 1985; 159–187
   Google Scholar
• Bazan N. G., Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W. C. Pathways for the conservation of docosahexaenoic acid in photoreceptors and synapses: Biochemical and autoradiographic analysis. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 1993; 71, In press
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon W. C., Bazan N. G. Docosahexaenoic acid utilization during rod photoreceptor cell renewal. J. Neurosci. 1990; 10: 2190–2204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang N., Anderson R. E. Enrichment of polyunsaturated fatty acids from rat retinal pigment epithelium to rod outer segments. Current Eye. Res. 1992; 11: 783–791
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazan N. G., Gordon W. C., Rodriguez de Turco E. B. Docosahexaenoic acid uptake and metabolism in photoreceptors: Retinal conservation by an efficient RPE cell-mediated recycling process. ‘Neurobiology of Essential Fatty Acids. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology’, N. G. Bazan, M. G. Marfi, G. Toffano. Plenum, New York 1992; Vol. 318: 295–306
   Google Scholar
• Wang N., Wiegand R. D., Anderson R. E. Uptake of 22-carbon fatty acids into rat retina and brain. Exp. Eye Res. 1992; 54: 933–939
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazan N. G., Reddy T. S., Redmond T. M., Wiggert B., Chader G. J. Endogenous tatty acids are covalently and noncovalently bound to interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein in the monkey retina. J. Biol. Chem. 1985; 260: 13677–13680
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon W. C., Bazan N. G. [3H]-docosahexaenoic acid uptake and utilization by retinal pigment epithelium and photoreceptors. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1993; 34: 2402–2411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W. C., Bazan N. G. Rapid and selective uptake, metabolism, and cellular distribution of docosahexaenoic acid among rod and cone photoreceptor cells in the frog retina. J. Neurosci. 1991; 11: 3667–3678
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W.C., Peyman G. A., Bazan N. G. Preferential uptake and metabolism of docosahexaenoic acid in membrane phospholipids from rod and cone photoreceptor cells of human and monkey retinas. J. Neurosci. Res. 1990; 27: 522–532
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl N. A., Gordon W. C. Photomembrane turnover in frog: Light intensity and spectral correlates. Exp. Eye Res. 1992; 55: 839–852
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folch J., Lees M., Sloane-Stanley G. H. A simple method for the purification of total lipids from animal tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 1957; 226: 497–509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouser G., Fleischer S., Yamamoto A. Two-dimensional thin layer chromatographic separation of polar lipids and determination of phospholipids by phosphorus analysis of spots. Lipids 1970; 5: 494–496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcheselli V. L., Bazan N. G. Quantitative analysis of fatty acids in phospholipids, diacylglycerols, free fatty acids, and other lipids. J. Nutr. Biochem. 1990; 1: 231–237
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W. C., Bazan N. G. Modulation of uptake and metabolism of 3H-DHA in retina as a function of extracellular concentration of free DHA. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1991; 32: 702, (Suppl.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos F. F., Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W. C., Peyman G. A., Bazan N. G. Perturbations in docosahexaenoic acid metabolism in rabbit retina due to experimental detachment. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992; 33: 859, (Suppl.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin R. E., Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W. C., Bazan N. G. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) metabolism in poodles with progressive rod-cone degenerations (prcd). Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992; 33: 1066, (Suppl.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W. C., Morgan W. K., Bazan N. G. Heterogeneity in docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 omega 3) metabolism in different retinal regions of control and prcd dogs. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1993; 34: 741, (Suppl.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon W. C., Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Peyman G. A., Bazan N. G. Uptake and distribution of docosahexaenoic acid (3H-22:6, n-3) in detached and attached human retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1991; 32: 702, (Suppl.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazan H. E.P., Sprecher H., Bazan N. G. De novo biosynthesis of docosahexaenoyl phosphatidic acid in bovine retinal microsomes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1984; 796: 11–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazan N. G., Di Fazio de Esculante M. S., Careaga M. M., Bazan H. E.P., Giusto N. M. High content of 22:6 (docosahexaenoate) and active [2-3H]-glycerol metabolism of phosphatidic acid from photoreceptor membranes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1982; 712: 702–706
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Choe H.-G., Anderson R. E. Unique molecular species composition of glycerolipids of frog rod outer segments. Exp. Eye Res. 1990; 51: 159–165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aveldaño M. I., Pasquare de Garcia S. J., Bazan N. G. Biosynthesis of molecular species of inositol, choline, serine, and ethanolamine glycerophospholipids in the bovine retina. J. Lipid Res. 1983; 24: 628–638
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez de Turco E. B., Gordon W. C., Parkins N. E., Bazan N. G. Contribution of de novo and turnover pathways to the synthesis of DHA-lipids in frog retinal cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992; 33: 1148, (Suppl.)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aveldaño M. I., Bazan N. G. Molecular species of phosphatidylcholine, -ethanolamine, -serine, and -inositol in microsomal and photoreceptor membranes of bovine retina. J. Lipid Res. 1983; 24: 620–627
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinson A. M., Wiegand R. D., Anderson R. E. Fatty acid and molecular species compositions of phospholipids and diacylglycerols from rat retinal membranes. Exp. Eye Res. 1991; 52: 213–218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nishizuka Y. Intracellular signaling by hydrolysis of phospholipids and activation of protein kinas. C. Science 1992; 258: 607–614
   Google Scholar
• Hayashi F., Amakawa T. Light-mediated breakdown of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate in isolated rod outer segments of frog photoreceptor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 1985; 128: 954–959
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millar F. A., Fisher S. C., Muir C. A., Edwards E., Hawthorne J. N. Polyphosphoinositide hydrolysis in response to light stimulation of rat and chick retina and retinal rod outer segments. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1988; 970: 205–211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghalayini A. J., Anderson R. E. Activation of bovine rod outer segment phospholipase C by arrestin. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 1–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar