Ventilation and ventilators — an update

References

• Hayes B. Ventilation and ventilators. Journal of Medical Engineering & Technology 1982; 6: 177–192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schapera A., Marks J. D., Katz J. A., Kraemer R. W. Functional limitations of ventilators. Anesthesiology 1987; 67, Suppl. A133
   Google Scholar
• Smallwood R. W. Ventilators - reported classifications and their usefulness. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 251–257
   Google Scholar
• Henning R. Clinical applications of mechanical ventilation. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 267–280
   Google Scholar
• Loh L., Venn J. H. Classifying mechanical ventilators. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 1987; 38: 466–476
   Google Scholar
• ISO 5369. Breathing machines for medical use-lung ventilators. International Organization for Standardization, ISO, Geneva 1987
   Google Scholar
• Willatts S. M. Alternative modes of ventilation: Part 1. Disadvantages of controlled mechanical ventilation: intermittent mandatory ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1985a; 11: 51–55
   Google Scholar
• Willatts S. M. Alternative modes of ventilation: Part 2. High and low-frequency positive pressure ventilation, PEEP, CPAP, inversed ratio ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1985b; 11: 115–122
   Google Scholar
• McEvoy R. D. Recently developed alternatives to conventional mechanical ventilation. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1985; 13: 178–183
   Google Scholar
• Smith B. E., Hanning C. D. Advances in respiratory support. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 138–150
   Google Scholar
• Sykes M. K. Advances in ventilatory support in acute lung disease. Care of the Critically Ill 1986; 2: 50–52
   Google Scholar
• Perel A. Newer ventilation modes: temptations and pitfalls. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 707–709
   Google Scholar
• Hillman K. M., Barber J. P. Asynchronous independent lung ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 11: 441–444
   Google Scholar
• Bochenek K. J., Brown M., Skupin A. Use of a double-lumen endotracheal tube with independent lung ventilation for treatment of respiratory atelectasis. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 1014–1017
   Google Scholar
• Crawford M. R. High-frequency ventilation. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 281–292
   Google Scholar
• Tamsma T. J. A. High-frequency ventilation. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 585–586
   Google Scholar
• Gallagher T. J., Klain M. M., Carlon G. C. Present status of high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1982; 10: 613–617
   Google Scholar
• Gallagher T. J. High-frequency ventilation. Medical Clinics of North America 1983; 67: 633–643
   Google Scholar
• Perspectives in High-Frequency Ventilation, P. A. Schenck, U. H. Sjostrand, R. B. Smith. Martin Nijhof, Boston 1983
   Google Scholar
• Chang H. K., Harf A. High-frequency ventilation: a review. Respiration Physiology 1984; 57: 135–152
   Google Scholar
• Drazen J. M., Kamm R. D., Slutsky A. S. High-frequency ventilation. Physiological reviews 1984; 64: 505–543
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Froese A. B. High-frequency ventilation: a critical assessment. Critical Care: State of the Art, W. C. Shoemaker, W. L. Thompson. The Society of Critical Care Medicine. 1984; Vol. 5
   Google Scholar
• Howland W. S., Carlon G. C. Development of high-frequency ventilation techniques. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 707
   Google Scholar
• Ackerman N. B., De Lemos R. A. High frequency ventilation. Advances in Pediatrics 1985; 31: 259–293
   Google Scholar
• Ackerman N. B., Null D. M., De Lemos R. A. High-frequency ventilation: history, theory and practice. Mechanical Ventilation, R. R. Kirby, R. A. Smith, D. A. Desautels. Churchill-Livingstone, New York 1985
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Howland W. S. Clinical experience with high-frequency jet ventilation. International Anesthesiology Clinics 1985; 21: 99–123
   Google Scholar
• High-frequency ventilation in intensive care and during surgery. Lung Biology in Health and Disease, G. C. Carlon, W. S. Howland. Marcel Dekker, New York 1985; Vol. 26
   Google Scholar
• Mortimer A. High-frequency ventilation. Intensive Care World 1985; 2: 42–44
   Google Scholar
• Abu Dbai J., Flatau E., Lev A., Kohn D., Monis-Hass I., Barzilay A. The use of conventional ventilators for high-frequency positive pressure ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 355–358
   Google Scholar
• West K. J., Zandstra D. F., Miranda D. R. Post-lobectomy atelectasis: the use of a Servo 900B as a high-frequency ventilator. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 78–80
   Google Scholar
• Saari A. F., Rossing T. H., Solway J., Drazen J. M. Lung inflation during high-frequency ventilation. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1984; 129: 333–336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryan A. C., Slutsky A. S. Lung volume during high-frequency ventilation. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1986; 133: 928–930
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouby J. J., Simonneau G., Benhamou D., Sartene R., Sardnal F., Duroux P., Viars P. Factors influencing pulmonary volumes and Co2 elimination during high-frequency jet ventilation. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: 473–482
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitwam J. G., Chakrabarti M. K., Gordon G. Tidal volume dead-space relationship during high-frequency ventilation. Lancet 1983; ii: 1360
   Google Scholar
• Colgan F. J., TenEyck L. G., Sawa T. Ventilation requirement during high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 173–176
   Google Scholar
• Simon B. A., Weinmann G. G., Mitzner W. Mean airway pressure and alveolar pressure during high-frequency ventilation. Journal of Applied Physiology 1984; 57: 1069–1078
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton J. E., Glass D. D. Airway pressure gradient during high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 15: 462–466
   Google Scholar
• Schuster D. P., Snyder J. V., Klain M. Comparison of venous admixture during high-frequency ventilation and conventional ventilation in oleic acid-induced pulmonary edema in dogs. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1982; 61: 735–740
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Griffin J., Ray C., Jr., Groeger J. S., Patrick K. High-frequency jet ventilation in experimental airway disruption. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 353–355
   Google Scholar
• Turnbull A. D., Carlon G. C., Howard W. S., Beattie E. J. High-frequency jet ventilation in major airway or pulmonary disruption. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 1981; 32: 468–474
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pizov R., Shir Y., Eimerl D., Uretzky G., Mil-Galter E., Cotev S. One-lung high-frequency ventilation in the management of traumatic tear of the bronchus in a child. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 1160–1161
   Google Scholar
• Derderian S. S., Rajagopal K. R., Abbrecht P. H., Bennet L. L., Doblar D. D., Hunt K. K. High-frequency positive pressure ventilation in bilateral bronchopleural fistulae. Critical Care Medicine 1982; 10: 119–121
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoff B. H., Wilson E., Smith R. B., Beanette E., Philips W. Intermittent positive-pressure ventilation and high-frequency ventilation in dogs with experimental bronchopleural fistula. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 598–602
   Google Scholar
• Bishop M. J., Benson M. S., Sato P., Pierson D. J. Comparison of high-frequency jet ventilation with conventional mechanical ventilation for bronchopleural fistula. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 833–838
   Google Scholar
• Larsson S., NordborC G. Emergency one-lung high-frequency positive-pressure ventilation (HFPPV). Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 471–474
   Google Scholar
• Pfenninr;er J., Gerber A. C. High-frequency ventilation (HFV) in hyaline membrane disease- a preliminary report. Intensive Cart Medicine 1987; 13: 71–75
   Google Scholar
• Kopotic R. J., Mannino F. L., Boynton B. P. A system for high-frequency oscillatory ventilation and intermittent mandatory ventilation in neonates. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 642–645
   Google Scholar
• Boynton B. R., Mannino F. L., Davis R. F., Kopotic R. J., Friederichsen G. Combined high-frequency oscillatory ventilation and intermittent mandatory ventilation in critically ill neonates. Journal of Pediatrics 1984; 105: 297–302
   Google Scholar
• Boros S. J., Mammei M. C., Coleman J. M., Lewal-Len P. K., Gordon M. J., Bing D. K., Ophoven J. P. Neonatal high-frequency ventilation: four years' experience. Pediatrics 1985; 75: 657–663
   Google Scholar
• Froese A. B., Butler P. O., Fletcher W. P., Byford L. J. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in premature infants with respiratory failure: A preliminary report. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 814–824
   Google Scholar
• Greenough A. Ventilation of the neonate. Intensive Therapy and Clinical Monitoring Sept/Oct, 1987; 152–158
   Google Scholar
• Clark K. H., Gerstmann D. K., Null D. M., Yoder B. A., Cornish D., Glasier C. M., Ackerman N. B., Bell R. E., De Lemos R. A. Pulmonary interstitial emphysema treated by high-frequency oscillatory ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 926–930
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle W. A., McLaughlin G., Gravenstein N. Performance of injector-type vaporizer during high-frequency positive pressure ventilation. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: S40
   Google Scholar
• Mutz N., Baum M., Benzer H., Koller W., Moritz E., Pauser G. Intraoperative application of high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 800–802
   Google Scholar
• Sherry K. M., Withington S., Feneck K. O. Assessment of a high-frequency ventilator breathing system for use in the operating theatre. British Journal of Anesthesia 1987; 59: 510–517
   Google Scholar
• Arai T., Hatano Y., Mori K. Trans-cutaneous monitoring during high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 882–883
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter R. Transcutaneous oxygen and carbon dioxide monitoring in the adult patient. Care of the Critically Ill 1988; 4: 13–15
   Google Scholar
• MacIntyre N. R., Ramage J. E., Follett J. V. Jet ventilation in support of fiberoptic bron-choscopy. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 303–307
   Google Scholar
• Paes M. L., Conacher I. D., Snellgrove T. R. A ventilator for carbon dioxide laser bronchoscopy. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 663–669
   Google Scholar
• Lunkenheimer P. P., Rafflenbuel W., Keller H., Frank I., Dickhut H. H., Fuhrmann C. Applications of transtracheal pressure oscillations as modification of diffusion respiration. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1972; 44: 627
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherer P. W., Haseltion F. R. Convective exchange in oscillatory flow through bronchial-tree models. Journal of Applied Physiology 1982; 53: 1023–1033
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang H. K. Mechanisms of gas transport during ventilation by high-frequency oscillation. Journal of Applied Physiology 1984; 56: 553–563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeger M. J., Kurzweg U. H., Banner M. J. Transport of gases in high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 708–710
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson C. G., Stenqvist O. Influence of high-frequency pulses on alveolar gas exchange. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 725–728
   Google Scholar
• Perry M. E., BlIJe P. W., Kindig N. B., Ghaed N. Gas washout and pressure waveform characteristics of high-frequency oscillation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 721–724
   Google Scholar
• Slutsky A. S. Mechanisms affecting gas transfer during high-frequency oscillation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 713–717
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakrabarti M. K., Loh L., Gilchrist I. High-frequency ventilation and gas diffusion. Acta Anaes-thesiologica Scandinavica 1984; 28: 544–548
   Google Scholar
• Chakrabarti M. K. Pulmonary ventilation by continuous flow rising a modified Caden's rube. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 354–356
   Google Scholar
• Permutt S., Mitzner W., WeinYann C;. G. Model of gas transport during high-frequency ventilation. Journal of Applied Physiology 3985; 58: 1956–1967
   Google Scholar
• Schuster D. P., Karsch R., Cronin K. P. Gas transport during different modes of high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 5–11
   Google Scholar
• Smith B. E. The role of acoustic resonance in high frequency ventilation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 130P
   Google Scholar
• Lin E. S., Smith B. E. An acoustic model of the patient undergo rig artificial ventilation. British Journal of Anaesthcsia 1987; 59: 256–264
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Ray C., Jr., Pierce M. K., Groeger J., Howland W. S. High-frequency jet ventilation, theoretical considerations and clinical observations. Chest 1982; 81: 350–354
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Ray C., Jr., Miodownik S., Howland W. S., Guy Y., Groeger J. S. Physiologic implications of high-frequency jet ventilation techniques. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 508–514
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Ray C., Jr., Griffin J., Miodownik S., Groeger J. S. Tidal volume and airway pressure on high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 83–86
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton P. P., Onayemi A., Smith J. A., Gillan J. E., Cutz E., Froese A. B., Bryan A. C. Comparison of conventional and high-frequency ventilation: oxygenation and lung pathology. Journal of Applied Physiology 1983; 55: 131–138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quan S. F., Militzer H. W., Calkins J. M., Sobonya R. E., Waterson C. K., Otto C. W., Conahan T. J. Comparison of high-frequency jet ventilation with conventional mechanical ventilation in saline-lavaged rabbits. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 759–763
   Google Scholar
• Keszler M., Klein R., McClellan L., Nelson D., Platt M. Effects of conventional and high-frequency jet ventilation on lung parenchyma. Critical Care Medicine 1982; 10: 514–516
   Google Scholar
• Sladen A., Guntupalli K., Klain M. High-frequency jet ventilation versus intermittent positive-pressure ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 788–790
   Google Scholar
• Schuster D. P., Klain M. M., Snyder J. V. Comparison of high-frequency jet ventilation to conventional jet ventilation during severe acute respiratory failure in humans. Critical Care Medicine 1982; 10: 625–630
   Google Scholar
• Ashley M., Cameron A. E., Slee I. P. High-frequency jet ventilation - its use in respiratory insufficiency. Intensive Care Medicine 1983; 9: 257–262
   Google Scholar
• Holzappfel L., Robert D., Perrin F., Gaussorgues P., Giudicelli D. P. Comparison of high-frequency jet ventilation to conventional ventilation in adults with respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 100–105
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Howland W. S., Ray C, Miodownik S., Griffin J. P., Groeger J. S. High-frequency jet ventilation: A prospective randomized evaluation. Chest 1983; 84: 551–559
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Banner M. J., Gallagher T. J., Banner T. C. Determining ideal frequency and inspiratory time for high-frequency jet ventilation in dogs. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1983; 62: 249, abstracts
   Google Scholar
• Banner M. J., Gallagher T. J., Banner T. C. Frequency and percent inspiratory time for high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1985; 13: 395–398
   Google Scholar
• Mal H., Rouby J. J., Benhamou D., Viars P. High-frequency jet ventilation in acute respiratory failure: which ventilator settings. British Journal of An aesthesia 1986; 58: 18–23
   Google Scholar
• Carlo W. A., Chatburn R. L., Martin R. J., Lough M. D., Shivpuri C. R., Anderson J. V., Fanaroff A. A. Decrease in airway pressure during high-frequency ventilation in infants with respiratory distress syndrome. Journal of Pediatrics 1984; 104: 101–107
   Google Scholar
• Waterson C. K., Militzer H. W., Quan S. F., Calkins J. M. Airway pressure as a measure of gas exchange during high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1981; 12: 742–746
   Google Scholar
• Chiaranda M., Rubini A., Fiore G., Giron G., Carlon G. C. Heamodynamic effects of continuous positive-pressure ventilation and high-frequency jet ventilation with positive end-expiratory pressure in normal dogs. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 750–754
   Google Scholar
• Vuori A., Heikelä A., Scheinin M., Klossner J., Viinamäki O. Continuous positive airway pressure with and without high-frequency ventilation: haemo-dynamics, oxygenation and endocrine response. Critical Care Medicine 1988; 16: 114–116
   Google Scholar
• Fischler M., Seigneur F., Bourelli B., Melchior J. C., Lavaud C., Vourc'h G. What changes can be expected during high-frequency jet ventilation when the rate of ventilation, the I: E ratio and the driving pressure are modified? A laboratory study. British Journal of Anaesthsia 1986; 58: 92–98
   Google Scholar
• Bayly R., Sladen A., Guntupalli K., Klain M. Synchronous versus nonsynchronous high-frequency jet ventilation: Effects on cardiopulmonary variables and airway pressure in post-operative patients. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 915–917
   Google Scholar
• Murray I. P., Mikhail M. S., Banner M. J., Modell J. H. Pulmonary embolism: High-frequency jet ventilation offers advantages over conventional mechanical ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 114–117
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Howland W. S., Groeger J. S., Ray C., Jr., Miodownik S. Role of high-frequency jet ventilation in the management of respiratory failure. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 777–779
   Google Scholar
• Klain M., Kalla R., Sladen A., Guntupali K. High-frequency jet ventilation in weaning the ventilator-dependent patient. Critical Cure Medicine 1984; 12: 780–781
   Google Scholar
• Vincken W., Cosio M. G. Clinical applications of high-frequency jet ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1984; 10: 275–280
   Google Scholar
• Rouby J. J., Fousciardi J., Bourgain H. L., Viars P. High-frequency jet ventilation in post-operative respiratory failure: Determinants of oxygenation. Anesthe-siology 1983; 59: 281–287
   Google Scholar
• Klain M., Keszler H., Stool S. Trans-tracheal high-frequency jet ventilation prevents aspiration. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 170–172
   Google Scholar
• Carlson C. A., Boysen P. G., Banner M. J., Gravenstein J. S. Conventional vs. high-frequency jet ventilation for extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: A530, abstracts
   Google Scholar
• Weber W., Alpen E., Gravenstein N., Banner M. J., Hugler P., Peter K. Inhalation anesthesia during high-frequency jet ventilation for extracorporeal shock-wave therapy of gallbladder stones. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: S187
   Google Scholar
• Howland W. S., Carlon G. C., Goldiner P. L., Rooney S-M, Concepcion I., Bains M. S., McCor-Mack P. S. High-frequency jet ventilation during thoracic surgical procedures. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 1009–1012
   Google Scholar
• Goto H., Boozalis S. T., Benson K. T., Arakawi K. High-frequency jet ventilation for resection of congenital lobar emphysema. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 684–686
   Google Scholar
• Rogers R. C., Gibbons J., Cosgrove J., Coppel D. L. High-frequency jet ventilation for tracheal surgery. Anaesthesia 1985; 40: 32–36
   Google Scholar
• Salzer G. M., Kroesen G., Hofer E. Catheter jet ventilation, a favourable technique during resection of the central tracheobronchial system. Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon 1985; 33: 276–278
   Google Scholar
• McKinney M., Coppel D. L., Gibbons J. R., Cosgrove J. A new technique for sleeve resection and major bronchial resection using twin catheters and high-frequency jet ventilation. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 25–26
   Google Scholar
• Von Vught A. J., Versprille A., Jansen J. R. C. Suppression of spontaneous breathing during high-frequency jet ventilation. Influence of dynamic changes and static levels of lung stretch. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 26–32
   Google Scholar
• Von Vughr A. J., Versprille A., Jansen J. R. C. Suppression of spontaneous breathing during high-frequency jet ventilation. Separate effects of lung volume and jet frequency. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 315–322
   Google Scholar
• Banzett R., Lehr J., Geoffroy B. High-frequency ventilation lengthens expiration in the anaesthetized dog. Journal of Applied Physiology 1983; 55: 329–334
   Google Scholar
• Chakrabarti M. K., Whitwam J. G. Evaluation of a new valveless all-purpose ventilator: effect of ventilatory frequency, PEEP, PaCO2 and PaO2 on phrenic nerve activity. Perspectives in high frequency ventilation, P. A. Schenck, C:. H. Sjostrand, R. B. Smith. Martin Nijhof, Boston 1983
   Google Scholar
• Banzett R. B., Reid M. B., Lehr J. High-frequency oscillation of the lungs alone lengthens expiration in dogs. Respiration Physiology 1985; 61: 57–67
   Google Scholar
• Beamer W. C., Prough D. S., Royster R. L., Johnsron W. E., Johnson C. High-frequency jet ventilation produces auto-PEEP. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 735–737
   Google Scholar
• Robotham J. L., Carlson J. J., De Lemos R. A. Dangers of high-frequency ventilation in hyaline membrane disease. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 85–86
   Google Scholar
• Noble D., Sheik A. Life-threatening complication of high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 13: 138–139
   Google Scholar
• Ophoven J. P., Mammel M. C., Gordon M. J., Boros S. J. Tracheobronchial histopathology associated with high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 829–832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gravenstein N., Weber W., Banner M. J. Entrainment of anesthetic gases from the circle system during high-frequency jet ventilation and anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1986; 65: A148
   Google Scholar
• Miodownik S., Ray C., Jr., Carlon G. C., Groeger J. S., Howland W. S. High-frequency jet ventilation. Technical implications. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 14: 718–720
   Google Scholar
• Groeger J. S., Carlon G. C., Howland W. S., Ray C., Jr., Miodownik S. Experimental evaluation of high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 747–749
   Google Scholar
• Berré J., Ros A-M., Vincent J-L., Dufay P., Bri-Mouelle S., Kahn R. J. Technical and psychological complications of high-frequency ventilation. Intensive Care, Medicine 1987; 13: 96–99
   Google Scholar
• Kolton M. A review of high-frequency oscillation. Canadian Anesthetists' Society Journal 1984; 31: 416–429
   Google Scholar
• El-Baz N., Faber L. R., Doolas A. Combined high-frequency ventilation for management of terminal respiratory failure (a new technique). Anesthesia and Analgesia 1983; 62: 39–49
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• El-Baz N., Braverman B., McCarthy R. Continuous jet ventilation combined with IPPV for treatment of ARDS. A new technique. Anesthesia and Analgesia (abstracts) 1984; 208
   Google Scholar
• Barzilay E., Lev A., Ibrahim M., Lesmes C. Traumatic respiratory insufficiency: Comparison of conventional mechanical ventilation to high-frequency positive pressure with low-rate ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1985; 15: 118–121
   Google Scholar
• Whitwam J. G., Chakrabarti M. K., Sapsed-Byrne S., Perl A. Combined continuous-flow normal and high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 202–206
   Google Scholar
• Perl A., Whitwam J. G., Chakrabarti M. K., Taylor V. M. Continuous-flow ventilation with and without respiratory movement in cat. dog and human. British Journal of Anesthesia 1986; 58: 544–550
   Google Scholar
• Girotti M. J., Pym J., Todesco J., Wigle R. D., Munt P. W. Simultaneous use of membrane oxygenation and high-frequency jet ventilation in acute pulmonary failure. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 511–513
   Google Scholar
• Hickling K. G. Extracorporeal CO2 removal in severe adult respiratory distress syndrome. Anaesthesia and Intcnriuc Care 1986; 14: 46–53
   Google Scholar
• Hickling K. G., Downward G., Davis F. M., A'Court G. Management of severe ARDS with low-frequency positive pressure ventilation and extracorporeal CO2 removal. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 79–83
   Google Scholar
• Dorrington K. L., Gardaz J. P., Bellhouse B. J., Sykes M. K. Extracorporeal oxygen and CO2: transfer of a polypropylene dimpled membrane lung with variable secondary flows: partial bypass in the dog. Journal of Biomedical Engineering 1986; 8: 36–42
   Google Scholar
• Bethune D. Extracorporeal membrane lung in the intensive care of ARDS. Care of the Critically Ill 1986; 2: 94–95
   Google Scholar
• Cornish J. D., Gerstmann D. R., Clark R. H., Carter J. M., Null D. M., Jr., De Lemos R. A. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and high-frequency oscillatory ventilation: Potential therapeutic relationships. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 831–834
   Google Scholar
• Carlsson C., Jorfeldt L., Carlsson L., Hessel-Vik F. Gas exchange during mechanical ventilation. Clinical Physiology 1985; 5: 123–126, Suppl. 3
   Google Scholar
• Hillman D. R. Physiological aspects of intermittent positive pressure ventilation. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 226–235
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stow P. J., Grant I. Asynchronous independent lung ventilation. Its use in the treatment of unilateral lung disease. Anaesthcsia 1985; 40: 163–166
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crimi G., Candiani A., Conti G., Mattia C., Gasparetto A. Clinical applications of independent lung ventilation with unilateral high-frequency jet ventilation (ILV-UHFJV). intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 90–94
   Google Scholar
• Payne J. P. Apnoeic oxygenation in anaesthetized man. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1962; 6: 129–142
   Google Scholar
• Smith R. B., Sjostrand U. H. Apneic diffusion oxygenation and continuous flow apneic ventilation. A review. Acta Anaesthesiologica Srandinavica 1985; 29: 101–105
   Google Scholar
• Matthews H. R., Hopkinson R. B. Treatment of sputum retention by minitracheostomy. Brilish Journal of Surgery 1984; 71: 147–150
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kirk A. J. B. Minitracheostomy in cardiothoracic practice. Care of the Critically Ill 1986; 2: 104–110
   Google Scholar
• Hart A. M., Cashman J. N., Baldock G. L., Dick J. A. Minitracheostomy in the treatment of sputum retention. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 81–82
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gwynn B. R., Mostafa S. M. Complications of a minitracheostomy. Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh 1984; 29: 381
   Google Scholar
• Yeoh N. T. L., Wells F. C., Goldstraw P. A complication of minitracheostomy. British, Journal of Surgery 1985; 72: 633
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Charnley R. M., Verma R. Inhalation of a minitracheostomy tube. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 108–109
   Google Scholar
• Wagstaff A., Sparling R., Ryan D. W. Minitracheostomy. Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 216
   Google Scholar
• Stelzer Y., Perel A., Shapira Y., Cotev S. Pop-off system for the high-flow IMV reservoir bag. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 157–158
   Google Scholar
• Mathru M., Rao T. L. K., Venus B. Ventilator induced barotrauma in controlled mechanical ventilation versus intermittent mandatory ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 359–361
   Google Scholar
• Hillman K. IMV - a wasted breath. Intensiue Care Mlorld 1985; 2: 35–36
   Google Scholar
• Hillman K., Friedlos J., Davey A. A comparison of intermittent mandatory ventilation systems. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 499–502
   Google Scholar
• Mecklenburgh J. S., Latto I. P., Al-Obaid T. A. A., Sway E. A., Mapleson W. W. Excessive work of breathing during intermittent mandatory ventilation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 1048–1054
   Google Scholar
• Weisman I. M., Rinaldo J. E., Rogers R. M., Sanders M. H. Intermittent mandatory ventilation. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1983; 127: 641–647
   Google Scholar
• Christopher K. L., Neff T. A., Bowman J. L., Eberle D. J., Irving C. G., Good J. T. Demand and continuous flow intermittent mandatory ventilation systems. Chest 1985; 87: 635–640
   Google Scholar
• Cohen A. T., Parsloe M. R. J. Modes of ventilation: SIMV for all. Intensive Care World 1987; 4: 58–62
   Google Scholar
• Gattinoni L., Mascheroni D., Torresin A, Mar-Colin R., Fomagalli R., Vesconi S., Row C. P., Baglioni S., Bassi F., Nastri G., Pesenti A. Morphological response to positive end expiratory pressure in acute respiratory failure. A computerized topography study. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 137–142
   Google Scholar
• Tokics L., Hedenstierna G., Strandberg A., Brismar B., Lundquist H. Lung collapse and gas exchange during general anesthesia: effects of spontaneous breathing, muscle paralysis and positive end-expiratory pressure. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 157–167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caviedes I., Benito S., Mancebo J., Net A. Effect of intrinsic end-expiratory pressure on respiratory compliance. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 947–949
   Google Scholar
• Row A., Gottfried S. B., Zocchi L., Higgs B. D., Lennox S., Calverley P. M., Begin P., Grassino A., Milic-Emili J. Measurement of static compliance of the total respiratory system in patients with acute respiratory failure during mechanical ventilation. The effect of intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1985; 131: 672–677
   Google Scholar
• Mathe J. C., Clement A, Chevalier J. Y., Gaultier C., Costil J. Use of total inspiratory pressure-volume curves for determination of appropriate positive end-expiratory pressure in newborns with hyaline membrane disease. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 332–336
   Google Scholar
• Hausdorf G., Hellwege 13. H. Influence of positive end-expiratory pressure on cardiac performance in premature infants: a Doppler-echocardiographic study. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 661–664
   Google Scholar
• Schwarz S. N., Shoemaker W. C., Nolan-Avila L. S. Effects of blood volume and discontinuance of ventilation on pulmonary vascular pressures and blood gases in patients with low levels of positive end-expiratory pressure. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 671–675
   Google Scholar
• East T. D., Kirk R. A., Pace N. L. Computer-controlled optimisation of positive end-expiratory pressure. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 792–797
   Google Scholar
• Slavin G., Nunn J. F., Crow J., Dore C. J. Bronchiolectasis - a complication of artificial ventilation. British Medical Journal 1982; 285: 931–934
   Google Scholar
• Navaratnarajah M., Nunn J. F., Lyons D., Milledge J. S. Bronchiolectasis caused by positive end-expiratory pressure. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 1036–1038
   Google Scholar
• Bshouty Z. H., Roeseler J., Reynaert M. S., Rodenstein D. The importance of the balloon volume of a CPAP system in reducing the work of breathing. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 153–156
   Google Scholar
• Gibney R. T., Wilson R. S., Pontoppidan H. H. Comparison of work of breathing on high gas flow anti demand valve continuous positive airway pressure systems. Chest 1982; 82: 692–695
   Google Scholar
• Boysen P. C., Banner M. J. Comparison of external flow. resistive workloads of demand-valve CPAP systems. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: A184
   Google Scholar
• Katz J. A., Kraemer R. W., Gjerde G. E. Inspiratory work and airway pressure with continuous positive airway pressure delivery systems. Chest 1985; 88: 519–526
   Google Scholar
• Katz J. A., Marks J. D. Inspiratory work with and without continuous positive airway pressure in patients with acute respiratory failure. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: 598–607
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marini J. J., Capps J. S., Culver B. H. The inspiratory work of breathing during assisted mechanical ventilation. Chest 1985; 87: 612–618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viale J. P., Annat G., Bertrand O., Godard J., Motin J. Additional inspiratory work in intubated patients breathing with continuous positive airway pressure systems. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: 536–539
   Google Scholar
• Viale J. P., Annat G., Percival C., Bertrand O., Motin J. Added inspiratory work of breathing during CPAP ventilation: a comparison of two demand-valve devices with a continuous flow system. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 374–377
   Google Scholar
• Braschi A., Iotti G., Locatelli A., Bellinzona G. A continuous flow intermittent mandatory ventilation with continuous positive airway pressure circuit with high-compliance reservoir bag. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 947–950
   Google Scholar
• Hillman D. R., Breakey J. N., Lam M., Noffsinger R. J., Finucane K. E. Minimizing work of breathing with continuous positive airway pressure and intermittent mandatory ventilation: An improved continuous low-flow system. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 665–670
   Google Scholar
• Harpin R. P., Baker J. P., Downer J. P., Whitwell J., Gallacher W. N. Correlation of the oxygen cost of breathing and length of weaning from mechanical ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 807–812
   Google Scholar
• Street M. K., Hopkinson R. B. Evaluation of the comfort of spontaneous respiration through three ventilator systems. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 405–410
   Google Scholar
• Cox D., Niblett D. J. Studies on continuous positive airway pressure breathing systems. British Journal of Awesthesia 1984; 56: 905–911
   Google Scholar
• Covelli H. D., Weled B. J., Beekman J. F. Efficacy of continuous positive airway pressure administered by a face mask. Chest 1982; 81: 147–150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlachter M. D., Perry M. E. Effect of continuous -positive airway pressure on lung mechanics during high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 14: 755–758
   Google Scholar
• Tyler D. C. Positive end-expiratory pressure: a review. Critical Care Medicine 1983; 11: 300–308
   Google Scholar
• Nunn J. F. Positive end-expiratory pressure. Effects of anesthesia and surgery on pulmonary mechanisms and gas exchange International Anesthesiology Clinics, J. G. Jones. Little, Brown, Boston 1984; 22: 149–164
   Google Scholar
• Duncan A. W., Oh T. E., Hillman D. R. PEEP and CPAP. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 236–250
   Google Scholar
• Smith J., Conway B., Mackenzie C. F., Matjasko J. Nonrebreathing valve competence. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 328–330
   Google Scholar
• Hills B. A. What forces keep the airspaces of the lung dry. Thorax 1982; 37: 713–717
   Google Scholar
• Ikegami M., Jobe A., Jacobs H., Lam R. A protein from airways in premature lambs that inhibits surfactant function. Journal of Applied Physiology 1984; 57: 1134–1142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hills B. A. Bursting the alveolar bubble. Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 467–469
   Google Scholar
• Allen S. J., Drake R. E., Williams J. P., Laine G. E., Gabel J. C. Recent advances in pulmonary edema. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 963–970
   Google Scholar
• Robertson B. Surfactant replacement in neonatal and adult respiratory distress syndrome. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 1984; 1: 335–343
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Avery M. E., Taeusch H. W., Floros J. Surfactant replacement. New: England Journal of Medicine 1986; 315: 825–826
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westaby S. Mechanisms of membrane damage and surfactant depletion in lung injury. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 2–5
   Google Scholar
• Barrowcliffe M. P., Jones J. G. Solute permeability of the alveolar-capillary barrier. Thorax 1987; 42: 1–10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heffner J. E., Sahn A., Repine J. E. The role of platelets in the respiratory distress syndrome. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1987; 135: 482–497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallgren R., Samuelsson T., Venge P., ModE J. Eosinophilic activation in the lung is related to lung damage. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1987; 135: 639–642
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbins R. A., Russ W. D., Rasmussen J. K., Clayton M. M. Activation of the complement system in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1987; 135: 651–659
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wardle E. N. Endotoxins in respiratory and renal failure. Care of the Critically Ill 1986; 2: 54–56
   Google Scholar
• Jones K., Higenbotam T. Prostacyclin in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Care of the Critically Ill 1986; 2: 155–159
   Google Scholar
• Travis J. Oxidants and antioxidants in the lung. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1987; 135: 773–774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beli R. C, Coalson J. J., Smith J. D., Johanson W. G. Multiple organ system failure and infection in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Annals of Internal Medicine 1983; 99: 293–298
   Google Scholar
• Weinberg P. F., Matthay M. A., Webster R. O., Roskos K. V., Goldstein I. M., Murray J. F. Biologically active products of complement and acute lung injury in patients with the sepsis syndrome. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1984; 130: 791–796
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidenfeld J. J., Pohl D. F., Bell R. C., Harris G. D., Johanson W. G. Incidence, site and outcome of infections in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1986; 134: 12–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dauber I. M., Pluss W. T., Von Grondelle A., Trow R. S., Weil J. V. Specificity and sensitivity of non-invasive measurement of pulmonary vascular protein leak. Journal of Applied Physiology 1985; 59: 564–571
   Google Scholar
• Braude S., Nolop K. B., Hughes J. M. B., Barnes P., Royston D. Comparison of lung vascular and epithelial permeability indices in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1986; 133: 1002–1005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tennenberg S. D., Jacobs M. P., Solomkin J. S., Ehlers N. A., Hurst J. M. Increased pulmonary alveolar-capillary permeability in patients at risk for adult respiratory distress syndrome. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 409
   Google Scholar
• Rinaldo J. E., Rogers R. M. Adult respiratory distress syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 1986; 315: 578–580
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon I., Smith P. Practical monitoring of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Care- of the Critically Ill 1986; 2: 160–161
   Google Scholar
• SvenninCsen N., Robertson B., Andreason P., Jonson B. Endotracheal administration of surfactant in very low birthweight infants with respiratory distress syndrome. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 918–922
   Google Scholar
• Carr D. J., Rich M., Murkowski K., Neu J. A comparative evaluation of three neonatal ventilators. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 234–236
   Google Scholar
• Cooper J. B. Anesthesia can be safer: the role of engineering and technology. Medical Instrumentation 1985; 19: 105–108
   Google Scholar
• ISO 5356–1. Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment-Connectors: Part I. Cones and sockets. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva 1987
   Google Scholar
• ISO 5356–2. Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment - Connectors: Part 2. Screw-threaded weight-bearing connectors. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva 1987
   Google Scholar
• BS. (1965) Breathing attachments for anaesthetic apparatus. British Standards Institution, London 3849
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 150: Evaluation of breathing attachments for anaesthetic apparatus to BS 3849: 1965. DHSS, London 1985
   Google Scholar
• IS0 5367. Breathing tubes used with anaesthetic apparatus and ventilators. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva 1980
   Google Scholar
• IS0 5361/1–5. Tracheal tubes: Part 1. Specification for all types of tubes; Part 2. Specification for or- tracheal and naso-tracheal tubes of the Magill type (plain and cuffed); Part 3. Specification for tubes of the Murphy type; Part 4. Specification for tubes of the Cole type; Part 5. Specification and methods of test for tube collapse and cuff hernia ion. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. Note: British Standard equivalents are BS 3487(1986): Parts 1 to 5 with identical titles. British Standards Institution [BSl], London 1984
   Google Scholar
• ISO 5366/1. Tracheostomy tubes: Part 1. Connectors. Geneva, International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Note: British Standard equivalent is BS 6149(1987): Part 1. Specification for connectors. British Standards Institution, London 1985
   Google Scholar
• ISO 5366/2. Tracheostomy tubes: Part 2. Basic requirements. Geneva, International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Note: British Standard equivalent is BS 6149(1986): Part 2. Specification for tubes (excluding connectors). British Standards Institution, London 1984
   Google Scholar
• ISO 7228. Tracheal tube connectors. Geneva, International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Note: British Standard equivalent is BS 6546(1984) with the same title. British Standards Institution, London 1981
   Google Scholar
• Cooper J. B., Couvillon I. A. Accidental breathing system disconnections. Interim report to the Food and Drug Administration. Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 1983
   Google Scholar
• Meyer R. M. A case for monitor rig oxygen in the expiratory limb of the circle. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 347
   Google Scholar
• McGarrigle R., White S. Oxygen analyzers can detect disconnections. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1984; 63: 464–465
   Google Scholar
• Spooner R. B. Oxygen analyzer variable as disconnection alarms. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1984; 63: 962
   Google Scholar
• ISO. Oxygen analyzers for monitoring patient breathing mixtures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva 7767, in press
   Google Scholar
• Picard U. M., Hancock D. E., Pinchak A. C. Pressure transients in anesthesia ventilators-Failure of disconnect alarm system. Anesthesiology 1987; 67, Suppl. A189
   Google Scholar
• Harrison M. J., Tomlinson D. A., Mann M. S. Disconnexions. Anaesthesia 1984; 39: 721
   Google Scholar
• Sara C., Wark H. J. Disconnections: an appraisal. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 448–452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lunn J. N., Mushin W. W. Mortality Associated with Anaesthesia. Nuffield Provincial Hospital Trust, London 1982
   Google Scholar
• Cooper J. B., Newbower R. S., Kitz R. J. An analysis of major errors and equipment failures in anesthesia management: Considerations for prevention and detection. Anesthesiology 1984; 60: 34–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green R. A., Taylor T. H. An analysis of liability claims in the United Kingdom 1977–82. Analysis of anesthetic mishaps, C. E. Pierce, J. B. Cooper. International Anesthesiology Clinics. 1984; 22: 73–89
   Google Scholar
• Holland R. Anesthesia. related mortality in Australia. Analysis of anesthetic mishaps, C. E. Pierce, J. B. Cooper. International Anesthesiology Clinics. 1984; 22: 61–71
   Google Scholar
• Wyant G. M., Craig D. B., Pietak S. P., Jenkins L. C., Dunn A. J. A panel discussion: Medico-legal factors in operating room safety. Canadian Anaesthetists' Society Journal 1984; 31: 298–301
   Google Scholar
• Williamson J. A., Webb R. K., Payor G. C. Anaesthesia safety and the ‘critical incident’ technique. Australian Clinical Review 1985; 5: 57–61
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 124: Evaluation of ventilator alarms: First report. DHSS, London 1984
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 169: Evaluation of ventilator alarms: Second report. DHSS, London 1987
   Google Scholar
• Myerson K. R., Ilsley A. H., Runciman W. B. An evaluation of ventilator monitoring alarms. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 174–185
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Emergency Care Research Institute (ECRI). Ventilation alarms. Health Devices 1981; 10: 204–220
   Google Scholar
• Boaden R. W., Hutton P. The digital control of anaesthetic gas flow. Anaesthesia 1986; 41: 413–418
   Google Scholar
• Palayiwa E., Hahn C. E. W., Sugg B. R., Lindsay-Scott D., Tyrell P. J. A microprocessor-controlled gas mixing device. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 1041–1047
   Google Scholar
• Park G. R., Johnson S. A ventilator for use during mobile intensive care and total intravenous anaesthesia. The Drager Oxylog. Anaesthesia 1982; 37: 1204–1208
   Google Scholar
• Harries M. G. Portable ventilators under field conditions. Anaesthesia 1983; 38: 279–281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlgren B-E, Johnson A., Lofstrom J. B. Portable emergency ventilators. A model lung study. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1983; 27: 39–43
   Google Scholar
• Boidin M. P. Mechanical ventilator for emergency medical care using a manual resuscitation bag. Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica 1984; 1: 43–51
   Google Scholar
• Vincent J-L., Dufaye P., Kahn R. J. A complete system for transportation of critically ill patients. Acute Care 1984; 10: 33–35
   Google Scholar
• Phillips G. D., Skowronski G. A. Manual resuscitators and portable ventilators. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 306–313
   Google Scholar
• Gervais H. W., Eberle B., Konietzke D., Hennes H-J., Dick W. Comparison of blood gases of ventilated patients during transport. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 761–763
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlgren B. E., Nilsson H. G., Peters B., Skevedik C. Portable emergency ventilators. 2. Sensitivity to environment. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1985; 29: 753–757
   Google Scholar
• ISO 8382. Resuscitators for use with humans. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva 1987, British Standard close equivalent is BS 6850 (1987): Ventilatory resuscitators (British Standards Institution, London)
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 111: Evaluation of resuscitators: First report: manual adult models. DHSS, London 1983
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 152: Evaluation of resuscitators: Second Report: manual adult and child models. DHSS, London 1986
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 181 Evaluation of Resuscitators. DHSS, London 1988
   Google Scholar
• Clergue F., Bakir M., Barakat T. Le Respirateur Servo ventilator 900C. Aggressologie 1984; 25: 417–421
   Google Scholar
• Trémolieères F. Le respirateur Erica. Aggressologie 1984; 25: 423–428
   Google Scholar
• Clero B., Atinault A. Le respirateur CPU-1. Aggressologie 1984; 25: 129–134
   Google Scholar
• Nunn J. F., Lyle D. J. P. Bench testing of the CPU-1 ventilator. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 653–662
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 119: Evaluation of lung ventilators: First report. DHSS, London 1983
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 143: Evaluation of lung ventilators: Second report: infant ventilators. DHSS, London 1985
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 160: Evaluation of lung ventilators: Third report: infant ventilators. DHSS, London 1986
   Google Scholar
• Mechanical Ventilation, R. R. Kirby, R. A. Smith, D. A. Desautels. Churchill Livingstone, New York 1985
   Google Scholar
• Dupuis Y. G. Ventilators: Theory and clinical application. C. V. Mosby Company, St Louis 1986
   Google Scholar
• Bersten A. D., Skowronski G. A., Oh T. E. New generation ventilators. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 293–305
   Google Scholar
• Weingarten M. Anaesthetic and ventilator mishaps: Prevention and detection. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 1084–1086
   Google Scholar
• Symposium. Mechanical ventilation and ventilators. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 226–313
   Google Scholar
• Wolf A. R., Volgyesi G. A. A modified Pilot tube for the accurate measurement of tidal volume in children. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 775–778
   Google Scholar
• Hatch D. J., Williams G. M. E. The Haloscale ‘Infanta’ Wright Respirometer. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1988; 60: 232–238
   Google Scholar
• Banner M. J., Gallagher R. C., Desautels D. A., Jaeger M. J. A manifold to measure exhaled tidal volume during high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 730–732
   Google Scholar
• Mihm F. G., Feeley T. W., Rodarte A. Monitoring end-tidal carbon dioxide tensions with high-frequency jet ventilation in dogs with normal lungs. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 180–182
   Google Scholar
• Algora-Weber A., Rubio J. J., Dominguez de Villota E., Cortes J. L., Gomez D., Mosquera J. M. Simple and accurate monitoring of end-tidal carbon dioxide concentrations during high-frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 895–897
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan R. F., Paulus D. A. Error in sampling of exhaled gases. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1982; 62: 955–956
   Google Scholar
• Gravenstein N., Lampotang S., Beneken J. E. W. Factors affecting capnography in the Bain circuit. Journal of Clinical Monitoring 1985; 5: 6–10
   Google Scholar
• Bissonette B., Lerman J. Single breath end-tidal PCO2 approximates arterial PCO2 in infants and children. Anaesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: S13
   Google Scholar
• Von Genderingen H. R., Gravenstein N. Capnography artifact during high airway pressures caused by a water trap. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: 185–187
   Google Scholar
• Phan C. Q., Tremper K. K., Barker S. J. vasive monitoring of carbon dioxide: transcu-taneous versus end-tidal PCO2. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1987; 66: S139
   Google Scholar
• Ward S. A. The capnogram: scope and limitations. Seminars in Anesthesia 1987; 6: 216–228
   Google Scholar
• Schena J., Thompson J., Crone R. K. Mechanical influences on the capnogram. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 672–674
   Google Scholar
• Henneberg S., Soderberg D., Groth T., Stjern-Strom H., Wiklund L. Carbon dioxide production during mechanical ventilation. Critical Care-Medicine 1987; 15: 8–13
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Healey C. J., Fedullo A. J., Swinburne A. J., Wahl G. W. Comparison of non-invasive measurements of carbon dioxide tension during withdrawal from mechanical ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 764–768
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badgweil J. M., McLeod M. E., Lerman J., Creichton R. E. End-tidal PCO2 measurements in infants and children ventilated with the Sechrist infant ventilator. Anesthesiology 1987; 67, Suppl. A511
   Google Scholar
• Duranteau R., Deriaz H., Schurandeau P., Rader C. D., Payeiz D. Towards an automated analysis of capnograms. Anesthesiology 1987; 67, Suppl. A196
   Google Scholar
• Cazalaà J.-B., Fort I., Bretagne J.-M. Capnomètres et capnographes. Agressologie 1985; 26: 1005–1016
   Google Scholar
• ECRI. Carbon dioxide monitors. Health Devices 1986; 15: 255–285; 316
   Google Scholar
• ISO/DIS 9918 (in press). Draft standard: Capnometers for medical use - Safety requirements. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva
   Google Scholar
• Ilsley A. H., Runciman W. B. An evaluation of fourtren oxygen analysers for use in patient breathing circuits. Anaesthesia and Internee Care 1986; 14: 431–436
   Google Scholar
• Koe P. G., Tyler C. K. G., Tennant R., Barnes P. K. Oxygen analysers. An evaluation of five fuel cell modrls. Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 175–181
   Google Scholar
• Salamonsen R. F., Tulloh A. M., Boyd T. Adaption of the quadrupole mass spectrometer to multi-patient anaesthesia gas monitoring. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 163–173
   Google Scholar
• Mendelson Y., Cheung P. W., Neuman M. R. Noninvasive monitoring of arterial blood oxygen saturation. IEEE/NSF Symposium on Biosensors. Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, USA 1984
   Google Scholar
• Kidd J. F. Pulse oximeters: basic theory and operation. Care of the Critically Ill 1988; 4: 10–13
   Google Scholar
• ISO/L IS 9919 (in press) Draft standard: Pulse oximeters for medical use - Safety requirements. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva
   Google Scholar
• Leak G. H., Levene S., McKenzie S. A. Letter in reply to Zorab, J. S. M. (q.v.). British Medical Journal 1988; 296: 1002
   Google Scholar
• Taylor M. B., Whitwam J. G. Letter in reply to Zorah, J. S. M. (q.v.). British Medical Journal 1988; 296: 934
   Google Scholar
• Zorab J. S. M. Who needs pulse oximetry. British Medical Journal 1988; 296: 658–659
   Google Scholar
• Sevringhaus J. W., Nafeh K. H. Accuracy of response of six pulse oximeters to profound hypoxia. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 551–558
   Google Scholar
• Mihm F. G., Halperin B. D. Non-invasive detection of profound arterial desaturation using a pulse oximrtry device. Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 85–87
   Google Scholar
• Kebvck A. S., Chapman K. R., D'Urzo A. The accuracy and response characteristics of a simplified ear oximeter. Chest 1983; 83: 860–864
   Google Scholar
• Yelderman M., New W. Evaluation of pulse oximetry. Anesthesiology 1983; 59: 349–352
   Google Scholar
• Cecil W. T., Petterson M. T., Lamoonpun S., Rudolph C. D. Clinical evaluation of the Biox IIA Ear Oximeter in the critical care environment. Respiratory Care 1985; 30: 179–183
   Google Scholar
• Fanconi S., Doherty P., Edmonds J. F., Barker G. A., Bohn D. J. Pulse oximetry in pediatric intensive care; comparison with measured saturations and transcutaneous oxygen tension. Journal of Pediatrics 1985; 107: 362–366
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tweeddale P. M., Douglas N. J. Evaluation of the Biox IIA Ear Oximeter. Thorax 1985; 40: 825–827
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tyler J. A., Seeley H. F. The Nellcor N101 pulse oximeter. Anaesthesia 1986; 41: 302–305
   Google Scholar
• Kagle D. M., Alexander C. M., Berko R. S., Giuffre M., Gross J. B. Evaluation of the Ohmeda 3700 pulse oximeter: steady-state and transient response characteristics. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 376–380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridley S. A. A comparison of two pulse oximeters. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 136–140
   Google Scholar
• Taylor M. B., Whitwam J. G. The accuracy of pulse oximeters. A comparative evaluation of five pulse oximeters. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 229–232
   Google Scholar
• Levinson M. R., Groeger J. S., Miodownik S., Ray C., Brennan M. F. Indirect calorimetry in the mechanically ventilated patient. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 144–147
   Google Scholar
• Westenskow D. R., Cutler C. A., Wallace W. D. Instrumentation for monitoring gas exchange and metabolic rate in critically ill patients. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 183–187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis W. D., Chwals W., Benetti P. N., Lukshman K., O'Connell C, Blackburn G. L., Bistrian B. R. Bedside assessment of the work of breathing. Critical Care Medicine 1988; 16: 117–122
   Google Scholar
• Feenstra B. W. A., Holland W. P. J., Lanschot J. J. B., Bruining H. A. Design and validation of an automatic metabolic monitor. Intensive Care Medicine 1985; 11: 95–99
   Google Scholar
• Damask M. C., Weissman C., Askanazi J., Hymtan A. I., Rosenbaum S. H., Kinney J. M. A systematic method for validation of gas exchange measurements. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: 213–218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browning J. A., Linberg S. E., Turney S. Z., Chodoff F. P. The effects of fluctuating FIO2 on metabolic measurements in mechanically ventilated patients. Critical Care Medicine 1982; 10: 82–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holloway P., Smith H. Metabolic monitoring in the intensive care unit: a short review of techniques. Care of the Critically Ill 1988; 4: 24–29
   Google Scholar
• Lindahl S. G. E., Yates A. P., Hatch D. J. Relationship between invasive and non-invasive nieasurements of gas exchange in anaesthetized infants and children. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 168–175
   Google Scholar
• Eccles R. C., Swinamer D. L., Jones R. L., King E. G. Validation of a compact system for measuring gas exchange. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 807–811
   Google Scholar
• Jansen J. R. C., Versprille R. Improvement of cardiac output estimation by the thermodilution method during mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 71–79
   Google Scholar
• Okamoto K., Komatsu T., Kumar V., Sanchala V., Kubal K., Bhalodia R., Shibutani K. Effects of intermittent positive-pressure ventilation on cardiac output measurements by thermodilution. Critical Care Medicine 1986; 14: 977–980
   Google Scholar
• Hyman W. A., Drinker P. A. Design of medical device alarm systems. Medical Instrumentation 1983; 17: 103–106
   Google Scholar
• Kerr J. H., Hayes B. An ‘alarming’ situation in the intensive care unit. Intensive Care Medicine 1983; 9: 103–104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanford L. M., McIntyre J. W. R., Hogan J. T. Audible alarm signals for anaesthesia monitoring equipment. International Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing 1985; 1: 251–256
   Google Scholar
• O'Caroll T. M. Survey of alarms in an intensive therapy unit. Anaesthesia 1986; 41: 742–744
   Google Scholar
• Samuels S. I. An alarming problem. Anesthesiology 1986; 64: 128
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McIntyre J. W. R. Ergonomics: Anaesthetists' use of auditory alarms in the operating room. International Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing 1985; 2: 47–55
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kestin I. G., Miller B. R., Lockhart C. H. Use of audible alarms in the operating room. Anesthesiology 1987; 67, Suppl. A191
   Google Scholar
• Kerr J. H. Warning devices. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1985; 57: 606–708
   Google Scholar
• Kerr J. H. Alarms and excursions. Anaesthesia 1986; 41: 807–808
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 128: Evaluation of humidifiers for medical use: ultrasonic humidifiers. DHSS, London 1984
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 151: Evaluation of humidifiers for medical use: heated humidifiers: First reports. DHSS, London 1986
   Google Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 177: Evaluation of humidifiers for medical use: heated humidifiers: Second reports. DHSS, London 1987
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (1988) Humidifiers for medical use - vaporizers and nebulizers. International Standards Organization, Geneva 8185
   Google Scholar
• Shelly M. P., Lloyd G. M., Park G. R. A review of the mechanisms and methods of humidification of inspired gases. Intensive Care Medicine 1988; 14: 1–9
   Google Scholar
• Zandstra D. F., Stoutenbeek C. P., Miranda D. R. Effect of mucolytic and bronchodilator aerosol therapy on airway resistance in mechanically ventilated patients. Intensive Care Medicine 1985; 11: 316–318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacIntyre N. R., Andersson H. R., Silver R. M., Schuler F. R., Coleman R. E. Pulmonary function in mechanically ventilated patients during 24 hours use of a hygroscopic condenser humidifier. Chest 1983; 84: 560–564
   Google Scholar
• Gilston A. Hygroscopic condenser humidifiers, value for money. Anaesthesia 1984; 39: 1030–1031
   Google Scholar
• Leigh J. M., White M. G. A new condenser humidifier. Anaesthesia 1984; 39: 492–493
   Google Scholar
• Primiano F. P., Morantz M. E., Montague F. M., Miller R. B., Sachs D. P. L. Conditioning of inspired air by a hygroscopic condenser humidifier. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 12: 674–678
   Google Scholar
• Buckley P. M. Increase in resistance of in-line breathing filters in humidified air. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1984; 56: 637–643
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duncan A. Use of disposable condenser humidifiers in children. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1985; 13: 330
   Google Scholar
• Gedeon A., Mebius C., Palmer K. Neonatal hygroscopic condenser humidifier. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 51–54
   Google Scholar
• Tilling S. E., Hayes B. Heat and moisture exchangers in artificial ventilation: an experimental study of the effect of gas leakage. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1987; 59: 1181–1188
   Google Scholar
• Tilling S. E., Hancox A. J., Hayes B. An accurate method of measuring medical humidifier output. Clinical Physics and Physiological Measurement 1983; 4: 197–209
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stoutenbeek C. P., Miranda D. R., Zandstra D. F. A new hygroscopic condenser humidifier. Intensive Care Medicine 1982; 8: 231–234
   Google Scholar
• Chalon J., Markham J. P., Ali M. M., Ramanathan S., Turndorff H. The Pall Ultipor Breathing Circuit Filter - An efficient heat and moisture exchanger. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1984; 63: 566–570
   Google Scholar
• Shelly M. P., Park G. R., Warren M. E., Whetstone R. J. Portable lung ventilators: the potential risk from bacterial contamination. Intensive Care Medicine 1986; 12: 328–331
   Google Scholar
• Bygdeman S., Von Euler C., Nystrom B. Moisture exchangers do not prevent patient contamination of ventilators. A microbiological study. Acta Anaesthe-siologica Scandinavica 1984; 28: 591–594
   Google Scholar
• Emergency Care Research Institute (ECRI). Heat and moisture exchangers. Health Devices 1983; 12: 155
   Google Scholar
• Weeks D. B., Ramsey F. M. Laboratory investigation of six artificial noses for use during mdo-tracheal anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1983; 62: 758–763
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ogino M., Kopotic R., Mannino F. L. Moisture-conserving efficiency of condenser humidifiers. Anaesthesia 1984; 40: 990–995
   Google Scholar
• Shelly M., Bethune D. W., Latimer R. D. A comparison of five heat and moisture exchangers. Anaesthesia 1986; 41: 527–532
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Health Equipment Information. No. 166: Evaluation of heat and moisture exchangers. DHSS, London 1987
   Google Scholar
• Turtle M. J., Ilsley H., Rutten A. J., Runciman W. B. An evaluation of six disposable heat and moisture exchangers. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1987; 15: 317–322
   Google Scholar
• Klain M., Nordin U., Keszler H. Mucoci-liary transport with and without humidification in high frequency jet ventilation. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: A86, Suppl. 3A
   Google Scholar
• Hachenberg T., Wendt M., Deitmer T., Lavin P. Viscoelasticity of tracheobronchial secretions in high-frequency ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 95–98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatburn R. L., McClellan L. D. A heat and humidification system for high-frequency jet ventilation. Respiratory Care 1982; 27: 1386
   Google Scholar
• Ramanathan S., Arismendy J., Gandhi S., Chalon J., Turndorff H. Coaxial catheter for humidification during jet ventilation. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1982; 61: 689–692
   Google Scholar
• Doyle M. J., Napolitano A. E., Lippman R., Cooper K. K., Duncan J. S., Eakins K., Glauser F. L. Different humidification systems for high frequency jet ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1984; 12: 815–819
   Google Scholar
• Carlon G. C., Barker R. L., Benua R. S., Guy Y. G. Airway humidification with high-frequency jet Ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1985; 13: 114–117
   Google Scholar
• Smith B. E. The Penlon Bromsgrove high frequency jet ventilator for adult and paediatric use. A solution to the problem of humidification. Anaesthesia 1985; 40: 790–796
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs W., Fechner R., Ralenberg E. Humidification of the respiratory tract in high frequency jet ventilation. Perspectives in high frequency ventilation, P. A. Schenck, U. H. Sjostrand, R. B. Smith. Martin Nijhof, Boston 1983; 146
   Google Scholar
• Zandstra D. F., Stoutenbeek C. H., Miranda D. R. Efficiency of a heat and moisture exchange device during high-frequency jet ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1987; 13: 355–357
   Google Scholar
• Chakrabarti M. K., Whitwam J. G. A new valveless all-purpose ventilator: Description and laboratory evaluation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1983; 55: 1005–1015
   Google Scholar
• Harrop-Griffiths A. W., Chakrabarti M. K., Whitwam J. G. High frequency ventilation and afferent vagal activity. Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 1162–1170
   Google Scholar
• Whitwam J. G., Chakrabarti M. K., Konarzewski W. H., Askitopolou H. A new valveless all-purpose ventilator: Clinical evaluation. British Journal of dnaesthesia 1983; 55: 1017–1023
   Google Scholar
• Stock C. M., Downs J. B., Frolicher D. A. Airway pressure release ventilation. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 462–466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downs J. B., Stock C. M. Airway pressure release ventilation: a new concept in ventilator). support. Critical Care Medicine 1987; 15: 459–461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ppaez-Chada R. D., Gardaz J-P, Madgwick R. G., Sykes M. K. Cardio-respiratory effits of an inspiratory hold and continuous positive pressure ventilation in goats. Intensive Care Medicine 1983; 9: 263–269
   Google Scholar
• Blazek G., Zimpfer M. Effects of mechanical ventilation with prolonged inspirator).: expirator). ratio in critically ill patients - echocardiographic and haemody-namic findings. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: A111
   Google Scholar
• Al-Saady N., Bennett E. D. Decelerating inspiratory flow wave form improves lung mechanics and gas exchange in patients on intermittent positive-pressure ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1985; 11: 68–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole A. G. H., Weller S. F., Sykes M. K. Inverse ratio ventilation compared with PEEP in adult respiratory failure. Intensive Care Medicine 1984a; 10: 2127–232
   Google Scholar
• Bourgain J.-L., Mortimer A. J., Sykes M. K. Carbon dioxide clearance and deadspace during high frequency jet ventilation. Investigations in the dog. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1986; 58: 81–91
   Google Scholar
• Mortimer A. J., Cannon D. P., Sykes M. K. Estiniatioii of arterial PCO2 during high-frequency jet ventilation. Studies in the dog. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1987; 59: 240–246
   Google Scholar
• Andersen J. B. Inverse I: E ratio ventilation with pressure. control in catastrophic lung disease in adults: another lesson to be learned from neonatal intensive care. Intensive Care World 1987; 4: 21–23
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence P. J. The end of the IPPV era. Intensive Care Would 1986; 3: 40–41
   Google Scholar
• Cameron P. D., Oh T. E. Newer modes of mechanical ventilatory support. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1986; 14: 258–4266
   Google Scholar
• Browne D. R. G. Weaning patients from mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1984; 10: 55–58
   Google Scholar
• Pierson D. J. Weaning from mechanical ventilation in acute respiratory failure: concepts, indications and techniques. Respiratory Care 1983; 28: 646–662
   Google Scholar
• Simonds A. K., Sawicka E. H., Carroll N., Branthwaite M. A. Use of negative pressure ventilation to facilitate the return of spontaneous ventilation. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 216–219
   Google Scholar
• Carroll N., Branthwaite M. A. Inter-mitent positive pressure ventilation by nasal mask: technique and applications. Intensive Care Medicine 1988; 14: 115–117
   Google Scholar
• McDonald N. J., Lavelle P., Gallacher W. N., Harpin R. P. Use of the oxygen cost of breathing as an index of weaning ability from mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Medicine 1988; 14: 150–154
   Google Scholar