Are we using excessive neuroleptics? An argument for systematic neuroleptic dose reduction in stable patients with schizophrenia with specific reference to clozapine

References

• Allison BD, Mentore LJ, Heo M, Chandler PL, Cappelleri CJ, Infante CM, et al. Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: A comprehensive research synthesis. American Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1686–1696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown S, Kim M, Mitchell C, Inskip H. Twenty-five year mortality of a community cohort with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 2010; 196: 116–121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burroughs VJ, Maxey RW, Levy RA. Racial and ethnic differences in response to medicines: Towards individualised pharmaceutical treatment. Journal of the National Medical Association 2002; 94: 1–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne P. Managing the acute psychotic episode. British Medical Journal 2007; 334: 686–692
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Caffey EM, Diamond LS, Frank TV, Grasberger JC, Herman L, Klett CJ, et al. Discontinuation or reduction of chemotherapy in chronic schizophrenics. Journal of Chronic Diseases 1964; 17: 347–358
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Citrome L, Volavka J. Optimal dosing of atypical antipsychotics in adults: A review of the current evidence. Harvard Medical Review 2002; 10: 280–291
   Google Scholar
• Cook B, Hoogenboom G. Combined use of amisulpiride and clozapine for patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Australasian Psychiatry 2004; 12: 74–76
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Csernansky JG, Schuchart EK. Relapse and rehospitalisation rates in patients with schizophrenia: Effects of second generation antipsychotics. CNS Drugs 2002; 16: 473–484
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis JM, Matalon L, Watanabe MD, Blake L. Depot antipsychotic drugs: Place in therapy. Drugs 1994; 47: 741–773
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickey B, Normand ST, Eisen S, Hermann R, Cleary P, Cortés D, et al. Associations between adherence to guidelines for antipsychotic dose and health status, side effects, and patient care experiences. Medical Care 2006; 44: 827–834
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elie D, Poirier M, Chianetta J, Durand M, Gregoire C, Grignon S. Cognitive effects of antipsychotic dosage and polypharmacy: A study with the BACS in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2009; 22, (Epub ahead of print), doi: 10.1177/026988100777
   Google Scholar
• Ericksen SE, Hurt SW, Chang S. Haloperidol dose, plasma levels, and clinical response: A double-blind study. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1978; 14: 15–16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ezewuzie N, Taylor D. Establishing a dose–response relationship for oral risperidone in relapsed schizophrenia. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2006; 20: 86–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fehr BS, Ozcan ME, Suppes T. Low doses of clozapine may stabilize treatment-resistant bipolar patients. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2005; 255: 10–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein MJ, Rodnick EH, Evans JR, May PRA, Steinberg MR. Drug and family therapy in the aftercare of acute schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 1978; 35: 1169–1177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon BJ, Denis MJ. Dose related response to clozapine in a state psychiatric hospital population: A naturalistic study. Psychiatric Quarterly 1996; 67: 65–74
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gorwood P. Meeting everyday challenges: Antipsychotic therapy in the real world. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 16: S156–S162
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harris MJ, Heaton RK, Schalz A, Bailey A, Patterson TL. Neuroleptic dose reduction in older psychotic patients. Schizophrenia Research 1997; 27: 241–248
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrow M, Jobe TH. Factors involved in outcome and recovery in schizophrenia patients not on antipsychotic medication; 15-year multi-follow-up study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2007; 195: 406–414
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrow M, Jobe TH. How frequent is chronic multiyear delusional activity and recovery in schizophrenia: A 20-year multi-follow-up. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2010; 36: 192–204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haupt DW. Differential metabolic effects of antipsychotic treatments. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 16: S149–S155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennessy S, Bilker WB, Knauss JS, Margolis DJ, Kimmel SE, Reynolds RF, et al. Cardiac arrest and ventricular arrhythmia in patients taking antipsychotic drugs: Cohort study using administrative data. British Medical Journal 2002; 25: 1070–1072
   Google Scholar
• Hofer A, Kemmler G, Eder U, Honeder M, Hummer M, Fleischhacker WW. Attitudes toward antipsychotics among outpatient clinic attendees with schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2002; 63: 49–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogarty GE, McEvoy JP, Munetz M, Di Barry AL, Bartone P, Cather R, et al. Dose of fluphenazine, familial expressed emotion, and outcome in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1988; 45: 797–805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inderbitzin LB, Lewine RR, Scheller-Gilkey G, Swofford CD, Egan GJ, Gloersen BA, et al. A double-blind dose-reduction trial of fluphenazine decanoate for chronic, unstable schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1994; 151: 1753–1759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ito H, Koyama A, Higuchi T. Polypharmacy and excessive dosing: Psychiatrist's perceptions of antipsychotic drug prescription. British Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 187: 243–247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janicak PG, Davis JM. Antipsychotic dosing strategies in acute schizophrenia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 1996; 11: S35–S40
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson DA, Ludlow JM, Street K, Taylor RD. Double-blind comparison of half-dose and standard-dose flupenthixol decanoate in the maintenance treatment of stabilised out-patients with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1987; 151: 634–638
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kampman O, Lehtinen K, Lassila V. The reliability of compliance assessments performed by doctors and patients during neuroleptic treatment: A comparison of compliance ratings. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2001; 104: 299–304
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kane JM. Pharmacologic treatment of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 1999; 46: 1396–1408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane JM, Davis JM, Schooler NR, Marder SR, Brauzer B, Casey DE. A one-year comparison of four dosages of haloperidol decanoate. Schizophrenia Research 1993; 9: 239–240
   Google Scholar
• Kane JM, Leucht S, Carpenter D, Docherty JP. Expert consensus guideline series: Optimizing pharmacologic treatment of psychotic disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2003; 64: S1–S100
   Google Scholar
• Kane JM, Rifkin A, Woerner M, Reardon G, Sarantakos S, Schiehel D, et al. Low-dose neuroleptic treatment of outpatient schizophrenics: Preliminary results for relapse rates. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1984; 4: 55
   Google Scholar
• Kane JM, Woerner M, Sarantakos S. Depot neuroleptics: A comparative review of standard, intermediate, and low-dose regimens. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1986; 47: S30–S33
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kinon BJ, Volavka J, Stauffer V, Edwards SE, Liu-Seifert H, Chen L, et al. Standard and higher dose of olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: A randomized, double-blind fixed-dose study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2008; 28: 392–400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langan J, Shajahan P. Antipsychotic polypharmacy: Review of mechanisms, mortality and management. The Psychiatrist 2010; 34: 58–62
   Google Scholar
• Lewis P, Rack PH, Vaddadi KS, Allen JJ. Ethnic differences in drug response. Postgraduate Medical Journal 1980; 56: S46–S49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, et al. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine 2005; 353: 1209–1223
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marder SR, McQuade RD, Stock E, Kaplita S, Marcus R, Safferman AZ, et al. Aripiprazole in the treatment of schizophrenia: Safety and tolerability in short-term, placebo-controlled trials. Schizophrenia Research 2003; 61: 123–136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marder SR, Van Putten T, Mintz J, Lebell M, McKenzie J, May PRA. Low and conventional dose maintenance therapy with fluphenazine decanoate: Two year outcome. Archives of General Psychiatry 1987; 44: 510–517
   Google Scholar
• Marder SR, Van Putten T, Mintz J, McKenzie J, Lebell M, Faltico G, et al. Costs and benefits of two doses of fluphenazine. Archives of General Psychiatry 1984; 41: 1025–1029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCreadie RG, MacDonald IM. High dosage haloperidol in chronic schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1977; 131: 310–316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller D. Atypical antipsychotics: Sleep, sedation, and efficacy. Primary Care Companion Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2004; 6: 3–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mueser KT, McGurk SR. Schizophrenia. Lancet 2004; 363: 2063–2072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naber D, Karow A. Good tolerability equals good results: The patient's perspective. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2001; 11: S391–S396
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker G, Lambert T, Mcgrath J, McGorry P, Tiller J. Neuroleptic management of schizophrenia: A survey and commentary on Australian psychiatric practice. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1998; 32: 50–58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parks J, Radke A, Parker G, Foti M, Eilers R, Diamond M, et al. Principles of antipsychotic prescribing for policy makers, circa 2008. Translating knowledge to promote individualized treatment. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2009; 35: 931–936
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel JK, Buckley PF, Woolson S, Hamer RM, McEvoy JP, Perkins DO, et al. Metabolic profiles of second-generation antipsychotics in early psychosis: Findings from the CAFE study. Schizophrenia Research 2009; 111: 9–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel V, Andrade C. Pharmacological treatment of severe psychiatric disorders in the developing world: Lessons from India. CNS Drugs 2003; 17: 1071–1080
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Quitkin F, Rifkin A, Klein DF. Very high dosage versus standard dosage fluphenazine in schizophrenia: A double-blind study of nonchronic treatment-refractory patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 1975; 32: 1276–1281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RANZCP (Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists Clinical Practice Guidelines Team for the Treatment of Schizophrenia and Related Disorders). Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of schizophrenia and related disorders. Australian New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2005; 39: 1–30
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saha S, Chant D, McGrath J. A systemic review of mortality in schizophrenia: Is differential mortality gap worsening over time?. Archives of General Psychiatry 2007; 64: 1123–1131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schooler NR. Maintenance medication for schizophrenia: Strategies for dose reduction. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1991; 17: 311–324
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schooler NR. Maintenance medication for schizophrenia: Strategies for dose reduction. Focus 2004; 2: 175–186
   Google Scholar
• Schooler NR, Keith SJ, Severe JB, Matthews SM, Bellack AS, Glick ID, et al. Relapse and rehospitalization during maintenance treatment of schizophrenia. The effects of dose reduction and family treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 1997; 54: 453–463
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soares-Weiser K, Rathbone J. Neuroleptic reduction and/or cessation and neuroleptics as specific treatments for tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009; 4: 1–38
   Google Scholar
• Sparshatt A, Jones S, Taylor D. Quetiapine: Dose–response relationship in schizophrenia. CNS Drugs 2008; 22: 49–68
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stahl SM. Essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications2nd. Cambridge University Press, New York 2002
   Google Scholar
• Stalh SM. Antipsychotic polypharmacy, Part 1: Therapeutic option or dirty little secret?. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1999; 60: 425–426
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki T, Uchida H, Tanaka KF, Tomita M, Tsunoda K, Nomura K, et al. Reducing the dose of antipsychotic medications for those who had been treated with high-dose antipsychotic polypharmacy: An open study of dose reduction for chronic schizophrenia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2003; 18: 323–329
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor D. Antipsychotic polypharmacy–Confusion reigns. The Psychiatrist 2010; 34: 41–43
   Google Scholar
• Taylor M, Shajahan P, Lawrie SM. Comparing the use and discontinuation of antipsychotics in clinical practice: An observational study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2008; 69: 240–245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas AA, Friedman JH. Current use of clozapine in Parkinson's Disease and related disorders. Clinical Neuropharmacology 2010; 33: 14–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas A, Katsabouris G, Bouras N. Staff perception on reduction of medication in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatric Bulletin 1997; 21: 692–694
   Google Scholar
• Tiihonen J, Lonnqvist J, Wahlbeck K, Klaukka T, Niskanen L, Tanskanen A, et al. Eleven-year follow-up of mortality in patients with schizophrenia: A population-based cohort study (FIN11 study). Lancet 2009; 374: 620–627
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treatment Protocol Project. Management of mental disorders4th. World health organization, collaborating centre for evidence in mental health policy, Sydney 2004
   Google Scholar
• van Os J, Kapur S. Schizophrenia. Lancet 2009; 374: 635–645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Putten T, Marder SR, Mintz J, Poland RE. Haloperidol plasma levels and clinical response: A therapeutic window relationship. American Journal of Psychiatry 1992; 149: 500–505
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waddington JL, Youssef HA, Kinsella A. Mortality in schizophrenia. Antipsychotic polypharmacy and absence of adjunctive anticholinergics over the course of a 10-year prospective study. British Journal of Psychiatry 1998; 173: 325–329
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warner R. Recovery from schizophrenia and the recovery model. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 2009; 2: 374–380
   Google Scholar