Lithium Therapy: Limitations and Alternatives in the Treatment of Bipolar Disorders

REFERENCES

• Sachs GS, Lafer B, Truman CJ, Noeth M, Thibault AB: Lith-iurn monotherapy: Miracle, myth and misunderstanding. Psy-chiatr Ann 1994; 24:299–306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese JR, Woyshville MJ, Kimmel SE, Rapport DJ: Mixed states and bipolar rapid cycling and their treatment with valproate. Psychiatr Ann 1993; 23:70–78
   Google Scholar
• Bauer MS, Calabrese JR, Dunner DL, Post RP, Whybrow PC, Gyulai L, Tay LIC, Younkin SR, Bynum D, Lavori P, Price RA: Multisite data reanalysis of the validity of rapid cycling as a course modifier for bipolar disorder in DSM-IV Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:506–515.
   Google Scholar
• Dunner DL, Fieve RR: Clinical factors in lithium carbonate prophylaxis failure. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974; 30:229–233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kukopulos A, Reginaldi D, Laddomada P, Floric G, Serra G, Tondo L: Course of the manic depressive cycle and changes caused by treatment. Pharmacopsychiatry 1980; 13:156–167
   Google Scholar
• Calabrese JR, Woyshville MJ, Kimmel SE, Rapport DJ: Pre-dictors of valproate respons& in bipolar rapid cycling. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 13:280–283
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman TW, Clothier it, Passaglia P, Lesem MD, Swann AC: A double blind comparison of valproate and lithium in the treat-ment of acute mania. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149:108–111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Post RM, Uhde TW, Roy-Byrne PP, Joffe RT: Correlates of antimanic response to carbamazepine. Psychiatry Res 1987; 21:71–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maggs R: Treatment of manic illness with lithium carbonate. Br J Psychiatry 1963; 109:45–65
   Google Scholar
• Goodwin FK, Murphy DL, Bunney WE: Lithium carbonate treatment in depression and mania. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1969; 21:486–496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes PE, Stoll PM, Shamolan CH: Efficacy of lithium as acute treatment of manic depressive illness. Lancet 1971; 1:1319–1325
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden CL, Brugger AM, Swann AC, Calabrese JR, Janicak PG, Petty F, Dilsaver SC, Davis JM, Rush J, Small JG, Garza-Trevino ES, Risch SC, Goodnick PJ, Morris DD: Efficacy of divalproex sodium vs. lithium and placebo in the treatment of mania. JAMA 1994; 271:918–924
   Google Scholar
• Lerer B, Moore N, Meyendorff E, Cho S-R, Gershon S: Car-bamazepine versus lithium in mania: A double-blind study. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48:89–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Small JG, Klapper MH, Kellams JJ, Miller MJ, Milstein V, Sharpley PH, Small IF: Electroconvulsive treatment com-pared with lithium in management of manic states. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45:727–732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Small JG, Klapper MH, Milstein V, Kellams JJ, Miller MJ, Marhenke JD, Small IF: Carbamazepine compared with lith-ium in the treatment of mania. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48:915–921
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis JM: Overview of maintenance therapy in psychiatry. II. Affective disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1976; 133:1–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrow M, Goldberg JF, Grossman LS, Meltzer HY: Out-come in manic disorders: A naturalistic follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990; 47:665–671
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maj M, Priozzi R, Kemali D: Long-term outcome of lithium prophylaxis in patients initially classified as complete respond-ers. Psychopharmacology 1989; 98:535–538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tohen M, Waternaux CM, Tsuang MT Hunt AT: Four year follow-up of twenty-four first-episode manic patients. J Affect Disord 1990; 19:79–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin FK, Jamison KR: Manic-Depressive Illness. New York: Oxford University Press; 1990
   Google Scholar
• Keller MB, Lavori PW, Cmyell W, Andreasen NC, Endicott J, Clayton PJ, Klerman GL, Hirschfeld RMA: Differential outcome of pure manic, mixed/cycling, and pure depressive episodes in patients with bipolar illness. JAMA 1986; 255:3138–3142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Himmelhoch JM, Garfinkel ME: Sources of lithium resistance in mixed mania. Psychopharmacol Bull 1986; 23:613–620
   Google Scholar
• Prien RJ, Himmelhoch JM, Kupfer DJ: Treatment of mixed mania. J Affect Disord 1988; 15:9–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swann AC, Secunda SK, Katz MM, Koslow SH, Maas JW, Chang S, Robins E: Lithium treatment of mania: Clinical characteristics, specificity of symptom change, and outcome. Psychiatry Res 1986; 18:127–141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• APA: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV, 4th ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric As-sociation; 1994
   Google Scholar
• Coryell W, Endicott J, Keller M: Rapid cycling affective dis-order: Demographics, diagnosis, family, and course. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49:126–131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawcett J, Scheftner A, Clark D, Hedeker D, Gibbons R, Co-ryell W: Clinical predictors of suicide in patients with major affective disorders: A controlled prospective study. Am J Psy-chiatry 1987; 144:35–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haag H, Heidorn A, Haag M, Greil W: Sequence of affective polarity and lithium response: Preliminary report on the Mu-nich sample. Progr Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1987; 11:205–208
   Google Scholar
• Grof E, Haag M, Grof P, Haag H: Lithium response and the sequence of episode polarities: Preliminary report on a Ham-ilton sample. Progr Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1987; 11:199–203
   Google Scholar
• Kraepelin E, Barclay RM (trans), Robertson GM (ed): Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia. Edinburgh, Scot-land: E&S Livingstone; 1921
   Google Scholar
• Jamison KR, Gerner RH, Goodwin FK: Patient and physician attitudes toward lithium: Relationship to compliance. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979; 36:866–869
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holinger PC, Wolpert EA: A ten year follow-up of lithium use. IMJ 1979; 156:99–104
   Google Scholar
• McCreadie RG, Morrison DP: The impact of lithium in South-West Scotland. I. Demographic and clinical findings. Br J Psychiatry 1985; 146:70–74
   Google Scholar
• Page C, Benaim S, Lappin F: A long-term retrospective fol-low-up study of patients treated with prophylactic lithium car-bonate. Br J Psychiatry 1987; 150:175–179
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shopsin B, Gershon S: Cogwheel rigidity related to lithium maintenance. Am J Psychiatry 1975; 132:536–538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asnis GM, Asnis D, Dunner DL, Fieve RR: Cogwheel rigidity during chronic lithium therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1979; 136:1225–1226
   Google Scholar
• Lund Y, Nissen M, Rafaelsen OJ: Long-term treatment and psychological functions. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1982; 65:233–244
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korpf D, Muller-Oerlinghausen B: Changes in learning, memory and mood during lithium treatment. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1979; 59:97–124
   Google Scholar
• Judd LL: Effect of lithium on mood, cognition and person-ality function in normal subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979; 36:860–865
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apte SN, Langston JW: Permanent neurological deficits due to lithium toxicity. Ann Neurol 1983; 13:453–455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rafaelsen OJ, Bolwig TG, Ladefogeol J, Brun C: Kidney function and morphology in long-term treatment. In: Cooper TB, Gershon S, Kline N, Schou M, eds. Lithium: Controver-sies and Unresolved Issues. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1979:578–583
   Google Scholar
• Schou M, Amidsen A, Eskjer JS, Olsen T: Occurrence of goi-tre during lithium treatment. Br Med J 1968; 3:710–713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff J: The endocrine effects of lithium. In: Bossier JR, Hip-Pius H, Pichot P. eds. Proceedings of the IX Congress of the Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologicum. New York: Elsevier; 1974:621–628
   Google Scholar
• Mannisto PT: Endocrine side-effects of lithium. In: Johnson FN, ed. Handbook of Lithium Therapy. Baltimore: University Park Press; 1980:310–322
   Google Scholar
• Schou M, Weinstein MR: Problems of lithium maintenance treatment during pregnancy, delivery and lactation. Agres-sologie 1980; 21A:7–9
   Google Scholar
• Kalien B, Tandberg A: Lithium and pregnancy: A cohort study on manic-depressive women. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1983; 68:134–139
   Google Scholar
• Elia J, Katz IR, Simpson GM: Teratogenicity of psychothera-peutic medications. Psychopharmacol Bull 1987; 23:531–586
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobson SJ, Jones K, Johnson K, Ceolin L, Kaur P, Sahn D, Donnenfeld AE, Rieder M, Santelli R, Smythe J, Pastuszak A, Einarson 'T Koren G: Prospective multicentre study of pregnancy outcome after lithium exposure during first trimes-ter. Lancet 1992; 339:530–533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen LS, Friedman JM, Jefferson JW, Johnson EM, Weiner ML: A re-evaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. JAMA 1994; 271:146–150
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brennan MJW, Sandyk R, Borsook D: Use of sodium val-proate in the management of affective disorders: Basic and clinical aspects. In: Emrich HM, Okuma 1 Muller AA, eds. Anticonvulsants in Affective Disorders. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1984:56–65
   Google Scholar
• Emrich HM, Dose M, von Serssen D: The use of sodium val-proate and oxycarbamazepine in patients with affective disor-ders. J Affective Disord 1985; 8:243–250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope HG, McElroy SL, Keck P, Brown S: Valproate in the treatment of acute mania: A placebo controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48:62–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Post RM, Berrettini W, Uhde 'T Kellner C: Selective response to the anticonvulsant carbamazepine in manic depressive ill-ness: A case study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1984; 4:178–185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes SG: Longterm use of valproate in primary psychiatric disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50:35–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert PA: Acute and prophylactic therapies of patients with affective disorders using valpromide (dipropy-lacetamide). In: Emrich HM, Okuma 1 Muller AA, eds. An-ticonvulsants in Affective Disorders. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1984:33–44
   Google Scholar
• Lambert PA, Venaud G: Comparative study of valpromide versus lithium in treatment of affective disorders. Nervure 1992; 5:57–65
   Google Scholar
• Puzynski S, Klosiewicz L: Valproic acid amide in the treat-ment of affective and schizoaffective disorders. J Affect Dis-ord 1984; 6:115–121
   Google Scholar
• Semadeni GW: Study of the clinical efficacy of dipropy-lacetamide in mood disorders. Acta Psychiatr BeIg 1967; 76:458–466
   Google Scholar
• Sovner R: The use of valproate in the treatment of mentally retarded persons with typical and atypical bipolar disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50:40–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vencovsky E, Peteriva E, Kabes J: Preventive effect of dipropylacetamide in bipolar manic depressive psychoses. Psy-chiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz) 1987; 39:362–364
   Google Scholar
• Zapletalek M, Hanus H, Kindernayova H: [Personal experi-ence with the prophylactic effect of dipropylacetamide]. Cesk Psychiatr 1988; 84:7–10
   Google Scholar
• Herridge PL, Pope HG: Treatment of bulimia and rapid cy-cling bipolar disorder with sodium valproate: A case report. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1985; 5:229–230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klosiewicz L: The prophylactic influence of valproic acid am-ide in affective illness. Psychiatr Pol 1985; 1:23–29
   Google Scholar
• McElroy SL, Keck PE, Pope HG, Hudson JI: Valproate in the treatment of rapid cycling bipolar disorder. J Clin Psy-chopharmacol 1988; 8:275–278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese JR, Delucchi GA: Spectrum of efficacy of valproate in 55 rapid-cycling manic depressives. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147:431–434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Post RM, Leverich GS, Rosoff AS, Altshuler LL: Car-bamazepine prophylaxis in refractory affective disorders: A focus on long-term follow-up. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10:318–327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keck PE, McElroy SL, Bennett JA: Pharmacology and phar-macokinetics of valproic acid. In: Joffe RT Calabrese JR, eds. Anticonvulsants in Mood Disorders. New York: Marcel Dek-ker; 1994:27–42
   Google Scholar
• Ballenger JC, Post RM: Carbamazepine in manic-depressive illness: A new treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137:782–790
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Post RM, Uhde TW, Ballenger JC, Squillace KM: Prophylac-tic efficacy of carbamazepine in manic-depressive illness. Am J Psychiatry 1983; 140:1602–1604
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein E, Bental E, Lerer B, Be'maker RH: Carbamazepine and haloperidol vs placebo and haloperidol in excited psycho-ses. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984; 41:165–170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stromgren LS, Boller S: Carbamazepine in treatment and prophylaxis of manic-depressive disorder. Psychiatr Dev 1985; 4:349–367
   Google Scholar
• Lovett L, Watkins SE, Shaw DM: The use of alternative drug therapy in nine patients with recurrent affective disorder re-sistant to conventional prophylaxis. Biol Psychiatry 1986; 21:1344–1347
   Google Scholar
• Coxhead N, Silverstone Cookson J: Carbamazepine versus lithium in the prophylaxis of bipolar affective disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992; 85:114–118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okuma T: Effects of carbamazepine and other antiepileptic drugs on affective disorders. Presented at the symposium An-tiepileptic Drugs in Psychiatry. Freiburg, Germany, January 29–30, 1993
   Google Scholar
• Frankenburg FR, Tohen M, Cohen BM, Lipinski 7F: Long-term response to carbamazepine: A retrospective study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988; 8:130–132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ketter TA, Post RM: Clinical pharmacology and phannacok-inetics of carbamazepine. In: Joffe RT Calabrese JR, eds. An-ticonvulsants in Mood Disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994:147–187
   Google Scholar
• Hoschl C, Kozeny J: Verapamil in affective disorders: A con-trolled double blind study. Biol Psychiatry 1989; 25:128–140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garza:Trevino ES, Overall JE, Hollister LE: Verapamil versus lithium in acute mania. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149:121–122
   Google Scholar
• Bauer MS, Whybrow PC: Rapid cycling bipolar affective dis-order. II. Treatment of refractory rapid cycling with high-dose levothyroxine: A preliminary study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990; 47:435–440
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese JR, Kimmel SE, Woyshville MJ, Rapport DJ, Trivedi CJ, Meltzer HY: Clozapine in treatment refractory mania. Am J Psychiatry (in press)
   Google Scholar