16,285
Views
427
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Sugar consumption, metabolic disease and obesity: The state of the controversy

Pages 52-67 | Received 14 Jan 2015, Accepted 04 Jul 2015, Published online: 17 Sep 2015

References

  • Bray GA, Popkin BM. Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes?: health be damned! Pour on the sugar. Diabetes Care 2014;37:950–6
  • Kahn R, Sievenpiper JL. Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes?: we have, but the pox on sugar is overwrought and overworked. Diabetes Care 2014;37:957–62
  • Stanhope KL, Schwarz JM, Havel PJ. Adverse metabolic effects of dietary fructose: results from the recent epidemiological, clinical, and mechanistic studies. Curr Opin Lipidol 2013;24:198–206
  • Are all calories created equal? An analysis of the Coca-Cola Company’s communication in the fight against obesity. 2014. Available from: http://www.awpagesociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Coca-Cola_CaseStudy.pdf [last accessed 6 Apr 2015]
  • Coca-Cola joins America's beverage companies and the alliance for a healthier generation in landmark partnership to promote healthy lifestyles. 2014. Available from: http://www.coca-colacompany.com/coca-cola-unbottled-old/coca-cola-joins-americas-beverage-companies-and-the-alliance-for-a-healthier-generation-in-landmark-partnership-to-promote-healthy-lifestyles [last accessed 6 Apr 2015]
  • Duffey KJ, Gordon-Larsen P, Steffen LM, et al. Drinking caloric beverages increases the risk of adverse cardiometabolic outcomes in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:954–9
  • Welsh JA, Sharma A, Abramson JL, et al. Caloric sweetener consumption and dyslipidemia among US adults. JAMA 2010;303:1490–7
  • Welsh JA, Sharma A, Cunningham SA, Vos MB. Consumption of added sugars and indicators of cardiovascular disease risk among US adolescents. Circulation 2011;123:249–57
  • Bremer AA, Auinger P, Byrd RS. Sugar-sweetened beverage intake trends in US adolescents and their association with insulin resistance-related parameters. J Nutr Metab 2010;2010:196476
  • Yoshida M, McKeown NM, Rogers G, et al. Surrogate markers of insulin resistance are associated with consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and fruit juice in middle and older-aged adults. J Nutr 2007;137:2121–7
  • Assy N, Nasser G, Kamayse I, et al. Soft drink consumption linked with fatty liver in the absence of traditional risk factors. Can J Gastroenterol 2008;22:811–16
  • Ouyang X, Cirillo P, Sautin Y, et al. Fructose consumption as a risk factor for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol 2008;48:993–9
  • Bhupathiraju SN, Pan A, Malik VS, et al. Caffeinated and caffeine-free beverages and risk of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 2013;97:155–66
  • de Koning L, Malik VS, Rimm EB, et al. Sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;93:1321–7
  • Montonen J, Jarvinen R, Knekt P, et al. Consumption of sweetened beverages and intakes of fructose and glucose predict type 2 diabetes occurrence. J Nutr 2007;137:1447–54
  • Palmer JR, Boggs DA, Krishnan S, et al. Sugar-sweetened beverages and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in African American women. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:1487–92
  • Schulze MB, Manson JE, Ludwig DS, et al. Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middle-aged women. JAMA 2004;292:927–34
  • de Koning L, Malik VS, Kellogg MD, et al. Sweetened beverage consumption, incident coronary heart disease, and biomarkers of risk in men. Circulation 2012;125:1735–41, S1
  • Fung TT, Malik V, Rexrode KM, et al. Sweetened beverage consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:1037–42
  • Chan TF, Lin WT, Huang HL, et al. Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with components of the metabolic syndrome in adolescents. Nutrients 2014;6:2088–103
  • Denova-Gutierrez E, Talavera JO, Huitron-Bravo G, et al. Sweetened beverage consumption and increased risk of metabolic syndrome in Mexican adults. Public Health Nutr 2010;13:835–42
  • Dhingra R, Sullivan L, Jacques PF, et al. Soft drink consumption and risk of developing cardiometabolic risk factors and the metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults in the community. Circulation 2007;116:480–8
  • Hosseini-Esfahani F, Bahadoran Z, Mirmiran P, et al. Dietary fructose and risk of metabolic syndrome in adults: Tehran Lipid and Glucose study. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2011;8:50
  • Hostmark AT. The Oslo health study: soft drink intake is associated with the metabolic syndrome. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2010;35:635–42
  • Odegaard AO, Choh AC, Czerwinski SA, et al. Sugar-sweetened and diet beverages in relation to visceral adipose tissue. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012;20:689–91
  • Pollock NK, Bundy V, Kanto W, et al. Greater fructose consumption is associated with cardiometabolic risk markers and visceral adiposity in adolescents. J Nutr 2012;142:251–7
  • Batt C, Phipps-Green AJ, Black MA, et al. Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption: a risk factor for prevalent gout with SLC2A9 genotype-specific effects on serum urate and risk of gout. Ann Rheum Dis 2014;73:2101–6
  • Bomback AS, Derebail VK, Shoham DA, et al. Sugar-sweetened soda consumption, hyperuricemia, and kidney disease. Kidney Int 2010;77:609–16
  • Lin WT, Huang HL, Huang MC, et al. Effects on uric acid, body mass index and blood pressure in adolescents of consuming beverages sweetened with high-fructose corn syrup. Int J Obes (Lond) 2013;37:532--9
  • Yang Q, Zhang Z, Gregg EW, et al. Added sugar intake and cardiovascular diseases mortality among US adults. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:516--24
  • Cox CL, Stanhope KL, Schwarz JM, et al. Consumption of fructose-sweetened beverages for 10 weeks reduces net fat oxidation and energy expenditure in overweight/obese men and women. Eur J Clin Nutr 2012;66:201–8
  • Cox CL, Stanhope KL, Schwarz JM, et al. Consumption of fructose- but not glucose-sweetened beverages for 10 weeks increases circulating concentrations of uric acid, retinol binding protein-4, and gamma-glutamyl transferase activity in overweight/obese humans. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2012;9:68
  • Stanhope KL, Schwarz JM, Keim NL, et al. Consuming fructose-sweetened, not glucose-sweetened, beverages increases visceral adiposity and lipids and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight/obese humans. J Clin Invest 2009;119:1322–34
  • Teff KL, Grudziak J, Townsend RR, et al. Endocrine and metabolic effects of consuming fructose- and glucose-sweetened beverages with meals in obese men and women: influence of insulin resistance on plasma triglyceride responses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:1562–9
  • Maersk M, Belza A, Stodkilde-Jorgensen H, et al. Sucrose-sweetened beverages increase fat storage in the liver, muscle, and visceral fat depot: a 6-mo randomized intervention study. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;95:283–9
  • Sevastianova K, Santos A, Kotronen A, et al. Effect of short-term carbohydrate overfeeding and long-term weight loss on liver fat in overweight humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;96:727–34
  • Adiels M, Taskinen MR, Packard C, et al. Overproduction of large VLDL particles is driven by increased liver fat content in man. Diabetologia 2006;49:755–65
  • Adiels M, Olofsson SO, Taskinen MR, Boren J. Overproduction of very low-density lipoproteins is the hallmark of the dyslipidemia in the metabolic syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008;28:1225–36
  • Morino K, Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance in humans and their potential links with mitochondrial dysfunction. Diabetes 2006;55:S9–15
  • Jornayvaz FR, Shulman GI. Diacylglycerol activation of protein kinase Cepsilon and hepatic insulin resistance. Cell Metab 2012;15:574–84
  • Lewis GF, Carpentier A, Adeli K, Giacca A. Disordered fat storage and mobilization in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Endocr Rev 2002;23:201–29
  • Christian P, Sacco J, Adeli K. Autophagy: emerging roles in lipid homeostasis and metabolic control. Biochim Biophys Acta 2013;1831:819–24
  • Fisher EA. The degradation of apolipoprotein B100: multiple opportunities to regulate VLDL triglyceride production by different proteolytic pathways. Biochim Biophys Acta 2012;1821:778–81
  • Yao Z, Wang Y. Apolipoprotein C-III and hepatic triglyceride-rich lipoprotein production. Curr Opin Lipidol 2012;23:206–12
  • Sundaram M, Zhong S, Bou Khalil M, et al. Functional analysis of the missense APOC3 mutation Ala23Thr associated with human hypotriglyceridemia. J Lipid Res 2010;51:1524–34
  • Qin W, Sundaram M, Wang Y, et al. Missense mutation in APOC3 within the C-terminal lipid binding domain of human ApoC-III results in impaired assembly and secretion of triacylglycerol-rich very low density lipoproteins: evidence that ApoC-III plays a major role in the formation of lipid precursors within the microsomal lumen. J Biol Chem 2011;286:27769–80
  • Zheng C, Khoo C, Furtado J, Sacks FM. Apolipoprotein C-III and the metabolic basis for hypertriglyceridemia and the dense low-density lipoprotein phenotype. Circulation 2010;121:1722–34
  • Krssak M, Falk Petersen K, Dresner A, et al. Intramyocellular lipid concentrations are correlated with insulin sensitivity in humans: a 1H NMR spectroscopy study. Diabetologia 1999;42:113–16
  • Watt MJ, Hoy AJ. Lipid metabolism in skeletal muscle: generation of adaptive and maladaptive intracellular signals for cellular function. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2012;302:E1315–28
  • Samuel VT, Shulman GI. Mechanisms for insulin resistance: common threads and missing links. Cell 2012;148:852–71
  • Anderson EJ, Lustig ME, Boyle KE, et al. Mitochondrial H2O2 emission and cellular redox state link excess fat intake to insulin resistance in both rodents and humans. J Clin Invest 2009;119:573–81
  • Coen PM, Goodpaster BH. Role of intramyocelluar lipids in human health. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2012;23:391–8
  • Mayes PA. Intermediary metabolism of fructose. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;58:754S–65
  • Zalawadiya SK, Veeranna V, Mallikethi-Reddy S, et al. Uric acid and cardiovascular disease risk reclassification: findings from NHANES III. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2014;22:513--18
  • Billiet L, Doaty S, Katz JD, Velasquez MT. Review of hyperuricemia as new marker for metabolic syndrome. ISRN Rheumatol 2014;2014:852954
  • Cai W, Wu X, Zhang B, et al. Serum uric acid levels and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Uyghur and Han ethnic groups in northwestern China. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 2013;57:617–22
  • Viazzi F, Garneri D, Leoncini G, et al. Serum uric acid and its relationship with metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk profile in patients with hypertension: insights from the I-DEMAND study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2014;24:921--7
  • Stanhope KL, Medici V, Bremer AA, et al. A dose–response study of consuming high-fructose corn syrup-sweetened beverages on lipid/lipoprotein risk factors for cardiovascular disease in young adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2015;101:1144–54
  • Cox CL, Stanhope KL, Schwarz JM, et al. Circulating concentrations of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, and soluble leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 in overweight/obese men and women consuming fructose- or glucose-sweetened beverages for 10 weeks. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:E2034–8
  • Bergheim I, Weber S, Vos M, et al. Antibiotics protect against fructose-induced hepatic lipid accumulation in mice: role of endotoxin. J Hepatol 2008;48:983–92
  • Kavanagh K, Wylie AT, Tucker KL, et al. Dietary fructose induces endotoxemia and hepatic injury in calorically controlled primates. Am J Clin Nutr 2013;98:349–57
  • Wei Y, Wang D, Topczewski F, Pagliassotti MJ. Fructose-mediated stress signaling in the liver: implications for hepatic insulin resistance. J Nutr Biochem 2007;18:1–9
  • Aeberli I, Gerber PA, Hochuli M, et al. Low to moderate sugar-sweetened beverage consumption impairs glucose and lipid metabolism and promotes inflammation in healthy young men: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;94:479–85
  • Aeberli I, Hochuli M, Gerber PA, et al. Moderate amounts of fructose consumption impair insulin sensitivity in healthy young men: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2013;36:150–6
  • Black RN, Spence M, McMahon RO, et al. Effect of eucaloric high- and low-sucrose diets with identical macronutrient profile on insulin resistance and vascular risk: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes 2006;55:3566–72
  • Lewis AS, McCourt HJ, Ennis CN, et al. Comparison of 5% versus 15% sucrose intakes as part of a eucaloric diet in overweight and obese subjects: effects on insulin sensitivity, glucose metabolism, vascular compliance, body composition and lipid profile. A randomised controlled trial. Metabolism 2013;62:694–702
  • Marckmann P, Raben A, Astrup A. Ad libitum intake of low-fat diets rich in either starchy foods or sucrose: effects on blood lipids, factor VII coagulant activity, and fibrinogen. Metabolism 2000;49:731–5
  • Raben A, Moller BK, Flint A, et al. Increased postprandial glycaemia, insulinemia, and lipidemia after 10 weeks' sucrose-rich diet compared to an artificially sweetened diet: a randomised controlled trial. Food Nutr Res 2011;55. doi: 10.3402/fnr.v55i0.5961
  • Reiser S, Bickard MC, Hallfrisch J, et al. Blood lipids and their distribution in lipoproteins in hyperinsulinemic subjects fed three different levels of sucrose. J Nutr 1981;111:1045–57
  • Reiser S, Bohn E, Hallfrisch J, et al. Serum insulin and glucose in hyperinsulinemic subjects fed three different levels of sucrose. Am J Clin Nutr 1981;34:2348–58
  • Reiser S, Hallfrisch J, Michaelis OEt, et al. Isocaloric exchange of dietary starch and sucrose in humans. I. Effects on levels of fasting blood lipids. Am J Clin Nutr 1979;32:1659–69
  • Reiser S, Handler HB, Gardner LB, et al. Isocaloric exchange of dietary starch and sucrose in humans. II. Effect on fasting blood insulin, glucose, and glucagon and on insulin and glucose response to a sucrose load. Am J Clin Nutr 1979;32:2206–16
  • Stanhope KL, Bremer AA, Medici V, et al. Consumption of fructose and high fructose corn syrup increase postprandial triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, and apolipoprotein-B in young men and women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:E1596–605
  • Marriott BP, Olsho L, Hadden L, Connor P. Intake of added sugars and selected nutrients in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2006. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2010;50:228–58
  • DGAC. Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010. Available from: http://origin.www.cnpp.usda.gov/DGAs2010-DGACReport.htm [last accessed 31 Aug 2015]
  • Stanhope KL. Role of fructose-containing sugars in the epidemics of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Annu Rev Med 2012;63:329--43
  • Tappy L, Mittendorfer B. Fructose toxicity: is the science ready for public health actions? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2012;15:357–61
  • Bravo S, Lowndes J, Sinnett S, et al. Consumption of sucrose and high-fructose corn syrup does not increase liver fat or ectopic fat deposition in muscles. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2013;38:681–8
  • Yu Z, Lowndes J, Rippe J. High-fructose corn syrup and sucrose have equivalent effects on energy-regulating hormones at normal human consumption levels. Nutr Res 2013;33:1043–52
  • Wang DD, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, et al. The effects of fructose intake on serum uric acid vary among controlled dietary trials. J Nutr 2012;142:916–23
  • Wang DD, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, et al. Effect of fructose on postprandial triglycerides: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials. Atherosclerosis 2014;232:125–33
  • Bes-Rastrollo M, Schulze MB, Ruiz-Canela M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA. Financial conflicts of interest and reporting bias regarding the association between sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review of systematic reviews. PLoS Med 2013;10:e1001578
  • Massougbodji J, Le Bodo Y, Fratu R, De Wals P. Reviews examining sugar-sweetened beverages and body weight: correlates of their quality and conclusions. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;99:1096–104
  • Global Consumption of Dairy Products by Country (Annual). Version 12 November 2013 [database on the Internet]. Canadian Dairy Information Centre. Available from: http://www.dairyinfo.gc.ca/index_e.php?s1=dff-fcil&s2=cons&s3=consglo [last accessed 12 Jun 2015]
  • Dugan CE, Fernandez ML. Effects of dairy on metabolic syndrome parameters: a review. Yale J Biol Med 2014;87:135–47
  • Astrup A. Yogurt and dairy product consumption to prevent cardiometabolic diseases: epidemiologic and experimental studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;99:1235S–42
  • Elwood PC, Pickering JE, Givens DI, Gallacher JE. The consumption of milk and dairy foods and the incidence of vascular disease and diabetes: an overview of the evidence. Lipids 2010;45:925–39
  • Ellam S, Williamson G. Cocoa and human health. Annu Rev Nutr 2013;33:105–28
  • Livingstone MB, Black AE. Markers of the validity of reported energy intake. J Nutr 2003;133:895S–920
  • Rangan A, Allman-Farinelli M, Donohoe E, Gill T. Misreporting of energy intake in the 2007 Australian Children's Survey: differences in the reporting of food types between plausible, under- and over-reporters of energy intake. J Human Nutr Diet 2014;27:450--8
  • Lipton E. Rival industries sweet-talk the public. The New York Times. 2014
  • Rippe JM, Angelopoulos TJ. Sucrose, high-fructose corn syrup, and fructose, their metabolism and potential health effects: what do we really know? Adv Nutr 2013;4:236–45
  • Lowndes J, Sinnett S, Pardo S, et al. The effect of normally consumed amounts of sucrose or high fructose corn syrup on lipid profiles, body composition and related parameters in overweight/obese subjects. Nutrients 2014;6:1128–44
  • Lowndes J, Sinnett S, Yu Z, Rippe J. The effects of fructose-containing sugars on weight, body composition and cardiometabolic risk factors when consumed at up to the 90th percentile population consumption level for fructose. Nutrients 2014;6:3153–68
  • Zhang YH, An T, Zhang RC, et al. Very high fructose intake increases serum LDL-cholesterol and total cholesterol: a meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials. J Nutr 2013;143:1391–8
  • Te Morenga LA, Howatson AJ, Jones RM, Mann J. Dietary sugars and cardiometabolic risk: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of the effects on blood pressure and lipids. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100:65–79
  • Kelishadi R, Mansourian M, Heidari-Beni M. Association of fructose consumption and components of metabolic syndrome in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition 2014;30:503–10
  • Chung M, Ma J, Patel K, et al. Fructose, high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or indexes of liver health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100:833–49
  • Swarbrick MM, Stanhope KL, Elliott SS, et al. Consumption of fructose-sweetened beverages for 10 weeks increases postprandial triacylglycerol and apolipoprotein-B concentrations in overweight and obese women. Br J Nutr 2008;100:947–52
  • Crapo PA, Kolterman OG. The metabolic effects of 2-week fructose feeding in normal subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;39:525–34
  • Huttunen JK, Makinen KK, Scheinin A. Turku sugar studies XI. Effects of sucrose, fructose and xylitol diets on glucose, lipid and urate metabolism. Acta Odontol Scand 1976;34:345–51
  • Forster H, Heller G. [Studies on the significance of carbohydrates in a fully synthetic fat-free diet]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1973;98:1156–63
  • Madero M, Arriaga JC, Jalal D, et al. The effect of two energy-restricted diets, a low-fructose diet versus a moderate natural fructose diet, on weight loss and metabolic syndrome parameters: a randomized controlled trial. Metabolism 2011;60:1551–9
  • Swanson JE, Laine DC, Thomas W, Bantle JP. Metabolic effects of dietary fructose in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;55:851–6
  • Johnson RK, Appel LJ, Brands M, et al. Dietary sugars intake and cardiovascular health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2009;120:1011–20
  • DGAC. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. 2015. Available from: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/ [last accessed 12 Jun 2015]
  • Daugherty BL, Schap TE, Ettienne-Gittens R, et al. Novel technologies for assessing dietary intake: evaluating the usability of a mobile telephone food record among adults and adolescents. J Med Internet Res 2012;14:e58
  • Illner AK, Freisling H, Boeing H, et al. Review and evaluation of innovative technologies for measuring diet in nutritional epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 2012;41:1187–203
  • Kerr DA, Pollard CM, Howat P, et al. Connecting health and technology (CHAT): protocol of a randomized controlled trial to improve nutrition behaviours using mobile devices and tailored text messaging in young adults. BMC Public Health 2012;12:477
  • Yudkin J. Metabolic changes induced by sugar in relation to coronary heart disease and diabetes. Nutr Health 1987;5:5–8
  • Yudkin J. Dietary factors in arteriosclerosis: sucrose. Lipids 1978;13:370–2
  • Szanto S, Yudkin J. Plasma lipids, glucose tolerance, insulin levels and body-weight in men after diets rich in sucrose. Proc Nutr Soc 1969;28:11A–12
  • Hu FB. Resolved: there is sufficient scientific evidence that decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption will reduce the prevalence of obesity and obesity-related diseases. Obes Rev 2013;14:606–19
  • Kaiser KA, Shikany JM, Keating KD, Allison DB. Will reducing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption reduce obesity? Evidence supporting conjecture is strong, but evidence when testing effect is weak. Obes Rev 2013;14:620–33
  • Malik VS, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and BMI in children and adolescents: reanalyses of a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:438–9; author reply 9–40
  • Forshee RA, Anderson PA, Storey ML. Sugar-sweetened beverages and body mass index in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;87:1662–71
  • Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB. Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:274–88
  • Cottrell RC, Wittekind A. Conclusions of review of dietary sugars and body weight are unwarranted. BMJ 2013;346:f1238
  • Te Morenga L, Mallard S, Mann J. Dietary sugars and body weight: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies. BMJ 2013;346:e7492
  • Havel PJ. Dietary fructose: implications for dysregulation of energy homeostasis and lipid/carbohydrate metabolism. Nutr Rev 2005;63:133–57
  • Mueller WM, Gregoire FM, Stanhope KL, et al. Evidence that glucose metabolism regulates leptin secretion from cultured rat adipocytes. Endocrinology 1998;139:551–8
  • Teff KL, Elliott SS, Tschop M, et al. Dietary fructose reduces circulating insulin and leptin, attenuates postprandial suppression of ghrelin, and increases triglycerides in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:2963–72
  • Rezvani R, Cianflone K, McGahan JP, et al. Effects of sugar-sweetened beverages on plasma acylation stimulating protein, leptin and adiponectin: relationships with metabolic outcomes. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2013;21:2471–80
  • Morton GJ, Cummings DE, Baskin DG, et al. Central nervous system control of food intake and body weight. Nature 2006;443:289–95
  • Farooqi IS, O'Rahilly S. Leptin: a pivotal regulator of human energy homeostasis. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:980S–4
  • Balcells E, Delgado-Noguera M, Pardo-Lozano R, et al. Soft drinks consumption, diet quality and BMI in a Mediterranean population. Public Health Nutr 2011;14:778–84
  • Bermudez OI, Gao X. Greater consumption of sweetened beverages and added sugars is associated with obesity among US young adults. Ann Nutr Metab 2010;57:211–18
  • Bremer AA, Byrd RS, Auinger P. Differences in male and female adolescents from various racial groups in the relationship between insulin resistance-associated parameters with sugar-sweetened beverage intake and physical activity levels. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2010;49:1134–42
  • Ludwig DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 2001;357:505–8
  • Rhee JJ, Mattei J, Campos H. Association between commercial and traditional sugar-sweetened beverages and measures of adiposity in Costa Rica. Public Health Nutr 2012;15:1347–54
  • Rao SS, Attaluri A, Anderson L, Stumbo P. Ability of the normal human small intestine to absorb fructose: evaluation by breath testing. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007;5:959–63
  • Rumessen JJ, Gudmand-Hoyer E. Absorption capacity of fructose in healthy adults. Comparison with sucrose and its constituent monosaccharides. Gut 1986;27:1161–8
  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Ogden CL. Prevalence of obesity and trends in the distribution of body mass index among US adults, 1999–2010. JAMA 2012;307:491–7
  • Burger KS, Stice E. Frequent ice cream consumption is associated with reduced striatal response to receipt of an ice cream-based milkshake. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;95:810–17
  • Burger KS, Stice E. Neural responsivity during soft drink intake, anticipation, and advertisement exposure in habitually consuming youth. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2014;22:441–50
  • Gearhardt AN, Yokum S, Orr PT, et al. Neural correlates of food addiction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011;68:808–16
  • Griffioen-Roose S, Smeets PA, Weijzen PL, et al. Effect of replacing sugar with non-caloric sweeteners in beverages on the reward value after repeated exposure. PLoS ONE 2013;8:e81924
  • Kilpatrick LA, Coveleskie K, Connolly L, et al. Influence of sucrose ingestion on brainstem and hypothalamic intrinsic oscillations in lean and obese women. Gastroenterology 2014;146:1212–21
  • Ng J, Stice E, Yokum S, Bohon C. An fMRI study of obesity, food reward, and perceived caloric density. Does a low-fat label make food less appealing? Appetite 2011;57:65–72
  • Page KA, Chan O, Arora J, et al. Effects of fructose vs glucose on regional cerebral blood flow in brain regions involved with appetite and reward pathways. JAMA 2013;309:63–70
  • Purnell JQ, Klopfenstein BA, Stevens AA, et al. Brain functional magnetic resonance imaging response to glucose and fructose infusions in humans. Diabetes Obes Metab 2011;13:229–34
  • Stice E, Burger KS, Yokum S. Relative ability of fat and sugar tastes to activate reward, gustatory, and somatosensory regions. Am J Clin Nutr 2013;98:1377–84
  • Luo S, Monterosso JR, Sarpelleh K, Page KA. Differential effects of fructose versus glucose on brain and appetitive responses to food cues and decisions for food rewards. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2015;112:6509–14
  • Tryon MS, Stanhope KL, Epel ES, et al. Excessive sugar consumption may be a difficult habit to break: a view from the brain and body. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015;100:2239–47
  • Tordoff MG, Alleva AM. Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;51:963–9
  • Raben A, Vasilaras TH, Moller AC, Astrup A. Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: different effects on ad libitum food intake and body weight after 10 wk of supplementation in overweight subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:721–9
  • Reid M, Hammersley R, Hill AJ, Skidmore P. Long-term dietary compensation for added sugar: effects of supplementary sucrose drinks over a 4-week period. Br J Nutr 2007;97:193–203
  • Raben A, Macdonald I, Astrup A. Replacement of dietary fat by sucrose or starch: effects on 14 d ad libitum energy intake, energy expenditure and body weight in formerly obese and never-obese subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1997;21:846–59
  • van Baak MA, Astrup A. Consumption of sugars and body weight. Obes Rev 2009;10:9–23
  • Crum AJ, Corbin WR, Brownell KD, Salovey P. Mind over milkshakes: mindsets, not just nutrients, determine ghrelin response. Health Psychol 2011;30:424–9; discussion 30–1
  • Ervin RB, Ogden CL. Consumption of added sugars among U.S. adults, 2005–2010. NCHS Data Brief 2013;122:1–8
  • McCarthy J. Americans more likely to avoid drinking soda than before 2014. Available from: http://www.gallup.com/poll/174137/americans-likely-avoid-drinking-soda.aspx [last accessed 12 Jun 2015]
  • Mattes RD, Campbell WW. Effects of food form and timing of ingestion on appetite and energy intake in lean young adults and in young adults with obesity. J Am Diet Assoc 2009;109:430–7
  • Cassady BA, Considine RV, Mattes RD. Beverage consumption, appetite, and energy intake: what did you expect? Am J Clin Nutr 2012;95:587–93
  • Tournier A, Louis-Sylvestre J. Effect of the physical state of a food on subsequent intake in human subjects. Appetite 1991;16:17–24
  • DiMeglio DP, Mattes RD. Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: effects on food intake and body weight. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000;24:794–800
  • Petrunoff NA, Wilkenfeld RL, King LA, Flood VM. “Treats”, “sometimes foods”, “junk”: a qualitative study exploring “extra foods” with parents of young children. Public Health Nutr 2014;17:979–86
  • Rampersaud GC, Kim H, Gao Z, House LA. Knowledge, perceptions, and behaviors of adults concerning nonalcoholic beverages suggest some lack of comprehension related to sugars. Nutr Res 2014;34:134–42
  • Baskin ML, Herbey I, Williams R, et al. Caregiver perceptions of the food marketing environment of African-American 3–11-year-olds: a qualitative study. Public Health Nutr 2013;16:2231–9
  • Chandon P, Wansink B. Does food marketing need to make us fat? A review and solutions. Nutr Rev 2012;70:571–93
  • Gallucci M. As Mexico's sugary drink tax turns 1 year old. US Health Proponents Hope It Can Sway American Voters 2015. Available from: http://www.ibtimes.com/mexicos-sugary-drink-tax-turns-1-year-old-us-health-proponents-hope-it-can-sway-1779632 [last accessed 12 Jun 2015]
  • Evich HB. Berkeley breaks through on soda tax 2014. Available from: http://www.politico.com/story/2014/11/berkeley-breaks-through-on-soda-tax-112570.html [last accessed 12 Jan 2105]
  • Rogers R. Spending on campaign to defeat Richmond soda tax nears $2.5 million 2012. Available from: http://www.mercurynews.com/breaking-news/ci_21857220/more-than-2-million-spending-richmond-soda-tax [last accessed 12 Jan 2015]
  • Shields J. Big Beverage gives $10 million to CHOP 2011. Available from: http://www.philly.com/philly/blogs/heardinthehall/118077483.html?c=r [last accessed 12 Jun 2015]
  • Jacobson MF, Brownell KD. Small taxes on soft drinks and snack foods to promote health. Am J Public Health 2000;90:854–7
  • What does the science say? 2015 [updated 31 Oct 2014]. Available from: http://www.sugar.org/sugar-your-diet/what-does-the-science-say/ [last accessed 13 Jan 2015]
  • What the science says about HFCS 2015 [updated 5 Jan 2015]. Available from: http://sweetsurprise.com/what-science-says-about-hfcs [last accessed 13 Jan 2015]
  • Beverage industry responds to study on added sugar intake and cardiovascular diseases mortality 2014 [updated 3 Feb 2014]. Available from: http://www.ameribev.org/news-media/news-releases-statements/more/325/ [last accessed 14 Jan 2015]

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.