Management of Antiretroviral Drug Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection

References

• Greene W. C. The molecular biology of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 308–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furman P. A., Fyfe J. A., St Clair M. H., et al. Phosphorylation of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and selective interaction of the 5'-triphosphate with human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 8333–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St Clair M. H., Richards C. A., Spector T., et al. 3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine triphosphate as an inhibitor and substrate of purified human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 2469–73
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mitsuya H., Broder S. Inhibition of the in vitro infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type IIIAymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV) by 2',3'-dideoxynucleosides. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 1911–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horwitz J. P., Chua J., Noel M. Nucleosides. V. The monomesylates of l-(2'-deoxy-β-D-lyxofuranosyl) thymine. J Org Chem 1964; 29: 2076–8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blum M. R., Liao SHT, Good S. S., deMiranda P. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of zidovudine in humans. Am J Med 1988; 85(Suppl. 2A)189–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laskin O. L., deMiranda P., Blum M. R. Azidothymidine steady-state pharmacokinetics in patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. J Infect Dis 1989; 159: 745–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cload P. A. A review of the pharmacokinetics of zidovudine in man. J Infect Dis 1989; 18(Suppl. 1)15–21
   Google Scholar
• Collins J. M., Unadkat J. D. Clinical pharmacokinetics of zidovudine: an overview of current data. Clin Pharmacokinet 1989; 17: 1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langtry H. D., Campoli-Richards D. M. Zidovudine. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 1989; 37: 408–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarchoan R., Mitsuya H., Myers C. E., Broder S. Clinical pharmacology of 3'-azido-2',3'-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine) and related dideoxynucleosides. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 726–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLeod G. X., Hammer S. M. Zidovudine: five years later. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 487–501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilde M. I., Langtry H. D. Zidovudine. An update of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 1993; 46: 515–78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morse G. D., Shelton M. J., O'Donnell A. Comparative pharmacokinetics of antiviral nucleoside analogues. Clin Pharmacokinet 1993; 24: 101–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unadkat J. D., Collier A. C., Crosby S. S., et al. Pharmacokinetics of oral zidovudine (azidothymidine) in patients with AIDS when administered with and without a high-fat meal. AIDS 1990; 4: 229–32
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lotterer E., Ruhnke M., Trautmann M., et al. Decreased and variable systemic availability of zidovudine in patients with AIDS if administered with a meal. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1991; 40: 305–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ruhnke M., Bauer F. E., Seifert M., et al. Effects of standard breakfast on pharmacokinetics of oral zidovudine in patients with AIDS. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 2153–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stretcher B. N., Pesce A. J., Hurtubise P. E., Frame P. T. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine phosphorylation in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Ther Drug Monit 1992; 14: 281–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taburet A-M, Naveau S., Zorza G., et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine in patients with liver cirrhosis. Clin Pharm Ther 1990; 47: 731–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Child S., Montaner J., Tsoukas C., et al. Canadian multicenter azidothymidine trial: AZT pharmacokinetics. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1991; 4: 865–70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fletcher C. V., Rhame F. S., Beatty C. C., et al. Comparative pharmacokinetics of zidovudine in healthy volunteers and in patients with AIDS with and without hepatic disease. Pharmacotherapy 1992; 12: 429–34
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singlas E., Pioger J-C, Taburet A-M, et al. Zidovudine disposition in patients with severe renal impairment: influence of hemodialysis. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989; 46: 190–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garaffo R., Cassuto-Viguier E., Barillon J., et al. Influence of hemodialysis on zidovudine (AZT) and its glucuronide (GAZT) pharmacokinetics: two case reports. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1989; 27: 535–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pachon J., Cisneros J. M., Castillo J. R., et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine in end-stage renal disease: influence of hemodialysis. AIDS 1992; 6: 827–30
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zorza G., Beuagerie L., Taburet A-M, et al. Absorption of zidovudine in patients with diarrhoea. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 44: 501–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watts D. H., Brown Z. A., Tartaglione T., et al. Pharmacokinetic disposition of zidovudine during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 1991; 163: 226–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Sullivan M. J., Boyer P. J., Scott G. B., et al. The pharmacokinetics and safety of zidovudine in the third trimester of pregnancy for women infected with human immunodeficiency virus and their infants: Phase I Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Clinical Trials Group study (protocol 082). Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168: 1510–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez-Anaya A., Unadkat J. D., Schumann L., et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine (azidothymidine). III. Effect of pregnancy. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1991; 4: 64–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schenker S., Johnson R. F., King T. S., et al. Azidothymidine (zidovudine) transport by the human placenta. Am J Med Sci 1990; 299: 16–20
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lopez-Anaya A., Unadkat J. D., Schumann L. A., et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine (azidothymidine). I. Transplacental transfer. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1990; 3: 959–64
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lopez-Anaya A., Unadkat J. D., Schumann L. A., et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine (azidothymidine). II. Development of metabolic and renal clearance pathways in the neonate. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1990; 3: 1052–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Balis F. M., Pizzo P. A., Eddy J., et al. Pharmacokinetics of zidovudine administered intravenously and orally in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Pediatr 1989; 114: 880–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burger D. M., Kraaijeveld C. L., Meenhorst P. L., et al. Penetration of zidovudine into the cerebrospinal fluid of patients infected with HIV. AIDS 1993; 7: 1581–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klecker R. W., Collins J. M., Yarchoan R., et al. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid pharmacokinetics of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine: a novel pyrimidine analog with potential application for the treatment of patients with AIDS and related diseases. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1987; 41: 407–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pantaleo G., Graziosi C., Demarest J. F., et al. HIV infection is active and progressive in lymphoid tissue during the clinically latent stage of disease. Nature (London) 1993; 362: 355–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Embretson J., Zupancic M., Ribas J. L., et al. Massive covert infection of helper T lymphocytes and macrophages by HIV during the incubation period of AIDS. Nature (London) 1993; 362: 359–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolinski B., Wintergerst U., Maiuschke A., et al. Evaluation of saliva as a specimen for monitoring zidovudine therapy in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 1991; 5: 885–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Unadkat J. D., Lopez-Anaya A., Schumann L. Transplacental transfer and the pharmacokinetics of zidovudine (ZDV) in the near term pregnant macaque. P. 372. Proceedings of the 28th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Los Angeles. 1988
   Google Scholar
• Henry K., Chinnock B. J., Quinn R. P., et al. Concurrent zidovudine levels in semen and serum determined by radioimmunoassay in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. JAMA 1988; 259: 3023–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stagg M. P., Cretton E. M., Kidd L., et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (zidovudine) and catabolites with formation of a toxic catabolite, 3'-amino-3'-deoxythymidine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992; 51: 668–76
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cretton E. M., Schinazi R. F., McClure H. M., et al. Pharmacokinetics of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and its catabolites and interactions with probenecid in rhesus monkeys. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 801–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Placidi L., Cretton E. M. Placidi M., et al. Reduction of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine to 3'-amino-3'-deoxythymidine in human liver microsomes and its relationship to cytochrome P450. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993; 54: 168–76
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zimmerman T. P., Mahony W. B., Prus K. L. 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine. An unusual nucleoside analogue that permeates the membrane of human erythrocytes and lymphocytes by nonfacilitated diffusion. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 5748–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balzarini J., Pauwels R., Baba M., et al. The in vitro and in vivo anti-retrovirus activity, and intracellular metabolism of 3'-azido-2',3'-dideoxythymidine and 2'-3'-dideoxycytidine are highly dependent on the cell species. Biochem Pharmacol 1988; 37: 897–903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avramis V. I., Markson W., Jackson R. L., et al. Biochemical pharmacology of zidovudine in human T-lymphoblastoid cells (CEM). AIDS 1989; 3: 417–22
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dhawan R. K., Kharbanda S., Nakamura M., et al. Effects of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor on 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine uptake, phosphorylation and nucleotide retention in human U-937 cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1990; 40: 2695–2700
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Szebeni J., Patel S. S., Hung K., et al. Effects of thymidine and uridine on the phosphorylation of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (zidovudine) in human mononuclear cells. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 198–200
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tornevik Y., Jacobsson B., Britton S., et al. Intracellular metabolism of 3'-azidothymidine in isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 1991; 7: 751–191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slusher J. T., Kuwahara S. K., Hamzeh F. M., et al. Intracellular zidovudine (ZDV) and ZDV phosphates as measured by a validated combined high-pressure liquid chromatography radioimmunoassay procedure. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 2473–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuster H., Vogt M., Joos B., et al. A method for the quantification of intracellular zidovudine nucleotides. J Infect Dis 1991; 164: 773–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stretcher B. N., Pesce Al, Geisler B. A., et al. A coupled HPLC/radioimmunoassay for analysis of zidovudine metabolites in mononuclear cells. J Liq Chromatogr 1991; 14: 2261–72
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbins B. L., McDonald R. C., Srinivas P. M., et al. Enzymatic assay for measurement of zidovudine triphosphate in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1994; 38: 115–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connolly K. J., Hammer S. M. Antiretroviral therapy: reverse transcriptase inhibition. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 245–54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirsch M. S., D'Aquila R. T. Therapy for human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1686–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischl M. A., Richman D. D., Grieco M. H., et al. The efficacy of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 185–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischl M. A., Richman D. D., Causey D. M., et al. Prolonged zidovudine therapy in patients with AIDS and advanced AIDS-related complex. JAMA 1989; 262: 2405–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischl M. A., Richman D. D., Hansen N., et al. The safety and efficacy of zidovudine (AZT) in the treatment of subjects with mildly symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) infection. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112: 727–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sidtis J. J., Gatsonis C., Price R. W., et al. Zidovudine treatment of the AIDS dementia complex: results of a placebo-controlled trial. Ann Neurol 1993; 33: 343–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinney R. E., Maha M. A., Connor E. M., et al. A multicenter study of oral zidovudine in children with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1018–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt F. A., Bigley J. W., McKinnis R., et al. Neuropsychological outcome of zidovudine (AZT) treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1573–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs D., Kramer A., Reibnegger G., et al. Neopterin and P2-microglobulin as prognostic indices in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Infection 1991; 19(Suppl. 2)98–102
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Volberding P. A., Lagakos S. W., Koch M. W., et al. Zidovudine in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. A controlled trial in persons with fewer than 500 CD4-positive cells per cubic millimeter. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 941–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison S. M., Mayers D. L., Gardner L. I., et al. The duration of clinical stabilization with AZT therapy. Abstract B26-1992. lXth International Conference on AIDS, Berlin. June 6 to 11, 1993
   Google Scholar
• Merigan T. C., Amato D. A., Balsley J., et al. Placebo-controlled trial to evaluate zidovudine in treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection in asymptomatic patients with hemophilia. Blood 1991; 78: 900–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cooper D. A., Gatell J. M., Kroon S., et al. Zidovudine in persons with asymptomatic HIV infection and CD4+ cell counts greater than 400 per cubic millimeter. N EnglJ Med 1993; 329: 297–303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aboulker J-P, Swart A. M. Preliminary analysis of the Concorde trial (correspondence). Lancet 1993; 341: 889–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anon. US panel issues HIV treatment guidelines. Scrip 1993; 1834: 16
   Google Scholar
• Don P. C., Fusco F., Fried P., et al. Nail dyschromia associated with zidovudine. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112: 145–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Groark S. P., Hood A. F., Nelson K. Nail pigmentation associated with zidovudine. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989; 21: 1032–3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sahai J., Conway B., Cameron D., et al. Zidovudine-associated hypertrichosis and nail pigmentation in an HIV-infected patient. AIDS 1991; 5: 1395–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gertner E., Thum J. R., Williams D. N., et al. Zidovudine associated myopathy. Am J Med 1989; 86: 814–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroder J. M., Bertram M., Schnabel R., et al. Nuclear and mitochondrial changes of muscle fibers in AIDS after treatment with high doses of zidovudine. Acta Neurol 1992; 85: 39–47
   Google Scholar
• Manji H., Harrison MJG, Round J. M., et al. Muscle disease, HIV and zidovudine: the spectrum of muscle disease in HIV-infected individuals treated with zidovudine. J Neurol 1993; 240: 479–88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richman D. D., Fischl M. A., Grieco M. H., et al. The toxicity of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 192–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore R. D., Creagh-Kirk T., Keruly J., et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of zidovudine in patients with, advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 981–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rachlis A., Fanning M. M. Zidovudine toxicity. Clinical features and management. Drug Saf 1993; 8: 312–20
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fischl M. A., Parker C. B., Pettinelli C., et al. A randomized controlled trial of a reduced daily dosage of zidovudine in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1009–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordic, Medical Research Council HIV Therapy Group. Double blind dose-response study of zidovudine in AIDS and advanced HIV infection. Br Med J 1992; 304: 13–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Collier A. C., Bozzette S., Coombs R. W., et al. A pilot study of low-dose zidovudine in human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1015–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimura S., Oka S., Toyoshima T., et al. A randomized trial of reduced doses of azidothymidine in Japanese patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Intern Med 1992; 31: 871–6
   Google Scholar
• Gøtzsche P. C. Zidovudine dosage (correspondence). Br Med J 1993; 307: 682–3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National, Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. National Institutes of Health, and U.S. Public Health Service. State-of-the-art conference on azidothymidine therapy for early HIV infection. Am J Med 1990; 89: 335–44
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burger D. M., Meenhorst P. L., Koks CHW, et al. Drug interaction with zidovudine. AIDS 1993; 7: 445–60
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sattler F. R., Ko R., Antoniskis D., et al. Acetominophen does not impair clearance of zidovudine. Ann Intern Med 1991; 114: 937–40
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Medina D. J., Hsuing G. D., Mellors J. W. Ganciclovir antagonizes the anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity of zidovudine and didanosine in vitro. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 1127–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartman N. R., Yarchoan R., Pluda J. M., et al. Pharmacokinetics of 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine and 2',3'-dideoxyinosine in patients with severe human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990; 47: 647–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartman N. R., Yarchoan R., Pluda J. M., et al. Pharmacokinetics of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine in patients with severe human immunodeficiency infection. II. The effects of different oral formulations and the presence of other medications. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1991; 50: 278–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singlas E., Taburet A. M., Lebas B., et al. Didanosine pharmacokinetics in patients with normal and impaired renal function: influence of hemodialysis. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 1519–24
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knupp C. A., Shyu W. C., Dolin R., et al. Pharmacokinetics of didanosine in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related complex. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1991; 49: 523–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knupp C. A., Milbrath R., Barbhaiya R. H. Effect of time of food administration on the bioavailability of didanosine from achewable tablet formulation. J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 33: 568–73
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pons J. C., Boubon M. C., Taburet A. M., et al. Fetoplacental passage of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine (correspondence). Lancet 1991; 337: 732
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dancis J., Lee J. D., Mendoza S., et al. Transfer and metabolism of dideoxyinosine by the perfused human placenta. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1993; 6: 2–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dalton J. T., Au J. 2',3'-Dideoxyinosine is not metabolized in human placenta. Drug Metab Dispos 1993; 21: 544–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Balis F. M., Pizzo P. A., Butler K. M., et al. Clinical pharmacology of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. J Infect Dis 1992; 165: 99–104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell J. W., Klunk L. J. Comparative pharmacokinetics of new anti-HIV agents: 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine and 2',3'-dideoxyinosine. Biochem Pharmacol 1989; 38: 1385–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tay L. K., Papp E. A., Timoszyk J. Metabolism of 14C-2',3'-dideoxyinosine by the in situ perfused rat liver preparation. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1991; 12: 285–97
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahluwalia G., Cooney D. A., Hartman N., et al. Anomalous accumulation and decay of 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine-5'-triphosphate in human T-cell cultures exposed to the anti-HIV drug 2',3'-dideoxyinosine. Drug Metab Dispos 1993; 21: 369–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarchoan R., Mitsuya H., Thomas R., et al. In vivo activity against HIV and favorable toxicity profile of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine. Science 1989; 245: 412–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert J. S., Seidlin M., Reichman R. C., et al. 2',3'-Dideoxyinosine (ddl) in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS-related complex. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1333–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooley T. P., Kunches L. M., Saunders C. A., et al. Once-daily administration of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine (ddl) in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS-related complex. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1340–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarchoan R., Pluda J. M., Thomas R. V., et al. Long-term toxicity/activity profile of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine in AIDS or AIDS related complex. Lancet 1990; 336: 526–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler K. M., Husson R. N., Balis F. M., et al. Dideoxyinosine in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 137–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drusano G. L., Yuen G. J., Lanbert J. S., et al. Relationship between dideoxyinosine exposure, CD4 counts, and p24 antigen levels in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 562–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blanche S., Calvez T., Rouzioux C., et al. Randomized study of two doses of didanosine in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr 1993; 122: 966–73
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Faulds D., Brogden R. N. Didanosine. A review of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic potential in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Drugs 1992; 44: 94–116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knupp C. A., Graziano F. M., Dixon R. M., et al. Pharmacokinetic-interaction study of didanosine and ranitidine in patients seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 2075–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• , Bristol, Myers-Squibb. Videx®(didanosine) package insert.
   Google Scholar
• Shelton M. J., O'Donnell A. M., Morse G. D. Zalcitabine. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27: 480–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• , Hoffman-La Roche. HIVID®(zalcitabine) package insert.
   Google Scholar
• Klecker R. W., Collins J. M., Yarchoan R. C., et al. Pharmacokinetics of 2',3'-dideoxycytidine in patients with AIDS and related disorders. J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 28: 837–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustavson L. E., Kukuda E. K., Rubio F. A., et al. A pilot study of the bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of 2',3'-dideoxycytidine in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1990; 2: 28–31
   Google Scholar
• Pizzo P. A., Butler K., Balis F., et al. Dideoxycytidine alone and in an alternating schedule with zidovudine in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Pediatr 1990; 117: 799–808
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yarchoan R., Pemo C. F., Thomas R. V., et al. Phase I studies of 2',3'-dideoxycytidine in severe human immunodeficiency virus infection as a single agent and alternating with zidovudine (AZT). Lancet 1988; 1: 76–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly J. A., Litters C. L., Roth J. S., et al. The disposition and metabolism of 2',3'-dideoxycytidine, an in vitro inhibitor of human T-lymphotropic virus type III infectivity, in mice and monkeys. Drug Metab Dispos 1987; 15: 595–601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stames M. C., Cheng Y. Cellular metabolism of 2',3'-dideoxycytidine, a compound active against human immunodeficiency virus in vitro. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 988–91
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Merigan T. C., Skowron G., Bozzette S. A., et al. Circulating p24 antigen levels and responses to dideoxycytidine in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections. Ann Intern Med 1989; 110: 189–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischl M. A., Olson R. M., Follansbee S. E., et al. Zalcitabine compared with zidovudine in patients with advanced HIV-1 infection who received previous zidovudine therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1993; 118: 762–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Executive. summary: dideoxyinosine/dideoxycytidine CPCRA study, January 15, 1993. Bethesda, MD: Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. 1993
   Google Scholar
• Larder B. A., Kemp S. D. Multiple mutations of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase confer high-level resistance to zidovudine (AZT). Science 1989; 246: 1155–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larder B. A., Kellam P., Kemp S. D. Zidovudine resistance predicted by direct detection of mutations in DNA from HIV-infected lymphocytes. AIDS 1991; 5: 137–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richman D. D., Guatelli J. C., Grimes J., et al. Detection of mutations associated with zidovudine resistance in human immunodeficiency virus by use of the polymerase chain reaction. J Infect Dis 1991; 164: 1075–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boucher CAB, O'Sullivan E., Mulder J. W., et al. Ordered appearance of zidovudine resistance mutations during treatment of 18 human immunodeficiency virus-positive subjects. J Infect Dis 1992; 165: 105–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kellam P., Boucher CAB, Larder B. A. Fifth mutation in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase contributes to the development of high-level resistance to zidovudine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 1934–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richman D. D., Grimes J. M., Lagakos S. W. Effect of stage of disease and drug dose on zidovudine susceptibilities of isolates of human immunodeficiency virus. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1990; 3: 743–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St Clair M. H., Martin J. L., Tudor-Williams G., et al. Resistance to ddl and sensitivity to AZT induced by a mutation in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Science 1991; 253: 1557–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eron J. J., Chow Y-K, Caliendo A. M., et al. polmutations conferring zidovudine and didanosine resistance with different effects in vitro yield multiple resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates in vivo. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 1480–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erice A., Mayers D. L., Strike D. G., et al. Primary infection with zidovudine-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1163–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boucher CAB, Tersmette M., Lange JMA, et al. Zidovudine sensitivity of human immunodeficiency viruses from high-risk, symptom-free individuals during therapy. Lancet 1990; 336: 585–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larder B. A., Darby G., Richman D. D., et al. HIV with reduced sensitivity to zidovudine (AZT) isolated during prolonged therapy. Science 1989; 243: 1731–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang W., Perkins H., Anderson R. E., et al. Patterns of T lymphocyte changes with human immunodeficiency virus infection: from seroconversion to the development of AIDS. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1989; 2: 63–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahey J. L., Taylor JMG, Detels R., et al. The prognostic value of cellular and serologic markers in infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 166–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson M. A., Bacchetti P., Kolokathis A., et al. Surrogate markers for survival in patient with AIDS and AIDS related complex treated with zidovudine. Br Med J 1991; 302: 73–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lifson A. R., Hessol N. A., Buchbinder S. P., et al. The association of clinical conditions and serologic tests with CD4+ lymphocyte counts in HIV-infected subjects without AIDS. AIDS 1991; 5: 1209–15
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Choi S., Lagakos S. W., Schooley R. T., et al. CD4+ lymphocytes are an incomplete surrogate marker for clinical progression in persons with asymptomatic HIV infection taking zidovudine. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 674–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Gruttola V., Wulfsohn M., Fischl M. A., et al. Modeling the relationship between survival and CD4 lymphocytes in patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1993; 6: 359–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenfeld D. A., Finkelstein D. M., Richman D. D. Designing phase II studies of chemotherapy for HIV infection using CD4 as an end-point. AIDS 1993; 7: 955–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Easterbrook P. J., Ememi J., Gazzard B. Rate of CD4 cell decline and prediction of survival in zidovudine-treated patients. AIDS 1993; 7: 959–67
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kramer A., Wiktor S. Z., Fuchs D., et al. Neopterin: a predictive marker of acquired immune deficiency syndrome in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1989; 2: 291–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann B., Wang Y., Cumberland W. G., et al. Serum beta:-microglobulin level increases in HIV infection: relation to seroconversion, CD4 T-cell fall and prognosis. AIDS 1990; 4: 207–14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson R. E., Lang W., Shiboski S., et al. Use of β2-microglobulin level and CD4 lymphocyte count to predict development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150: 73–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phillips A. N., Lee C. A., Elford J., et al. p24 antigenimia, CD4 lymphocyte counts and the development of AIDS. AIDS 1991; 5: 1217–22
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reddy M. M., McKinley G. F., Grieco M. H. Evaluation of HIV p24 antigen, beta2-microglobulin, neopterin, soluble CD4, soluble CD8, and soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels in patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex treated with 2',3'-dideoxyinosine (ddl). J Clin Lab Anal 1991; 5: 396–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bass H. Z., Hardy W. D., Mitsuyasu R. T., et al. The effect of zidovudine treatment on serum neopterin and P2-microglobulin levels in mildly symptomatic, HIV type 1 seropositive individuals. J Acquired Immune Defic Syndr 1992; 5: 215–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lifson A. R., Hessol N. A., Buchbinder S. P., et al. Serum β2-microglobulin and prediction of progression to AIDS in HIV infection. Lancet 1992; 339: 1436–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escolano S., Mentre F., Golmard J. L., et al. A reduced dose of zidovudine in patients with AIDS (correspondence). N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 995
   Google Scholar
• Collier A. C., Tartaglione T., Corey L. A reduced dose of zidovudine in patients with AIDS (correspondence). N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 996
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tartaglione T. A., Collier A. C., Coombs R. W., et al. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: cerebrospinal fluid findings in patients before and during long-term oral zidovudine therapy. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 695–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Plunkett W., Gandhi V. Pharmacokinetics of arabinosylcytosine. J Infus Chemother 1992; 2: 169–76
   Google Scholar
• Liliemark J., Peterson C. Pharmacokinetic optimisation of anticancer therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 1991; 21: 213–31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stretcher B. N., Pesce A. J., Frame P. T., et al. In press.
   Google Scholar
• Stretcher B. N., Pesce A. J., Frame P. T. Correlates of zidovudine phosphorylation with markers of HIV disease progression and drug toxicity. AIDS 1994; 8: 763–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar