113
Views
53
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Cocaine: A Review of Its Toxic Actions on Cardiac Function

Pages 113-132 | Published online: 25 Sep 2008

References

  • Abel F. L., Wilson S. P., Zhao R. R., et al. Cocaine depresses the canine myocardium. Circ. Shock. 1989; 28: 309
  • Abelson H. I., Miller J. D. A decade of trends in cocaine use in the household population. NIDA Res. Mongr. 1985; 61: 35
  • Ascher E. K., Stauffer J. C. E., Gaasch W. H. Coronary artery spasm, cardiac arrest, transient electrocardiographic Q waves and stunned myocardium in cocaine-associated acute myocardial infarction. Am. J. Cardiol. 1988; 61: 939
  • Beckman K. J., Parker R. B., Hareman R. J., et al. Hemodynamic and electrophysiological actions of cocaine, effects of sodium bicarbonate as an antidote in dogs. Circulation 1991; 83: 1799
  • Bedotto J. B., Lee R. W., Lancaster L. D., et al. Cocaine and cardiovascular function in dogs, effects on heart and peripheral circulation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1988; 11: 1337
  • Benchimol A., Hartall H., Desser K. B. Accelerated ventricular rhythm and cocaine abuse. Ann. Intern. Med. 1978; 88: 519
  • Berridge M. J. Inositol trisphosphate and diacyl-glycerol: two interacting second messengers. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1987; 56: 159
  • Bertolet B. D., Freund G., Martin C. A., et al. Unrecognized left ventricular dysfunction in an apparently healthy cocaine abuse population. Clin. Cardiol. 1990; 13: 323
  • Billingham M. E. Direct and indirect morphological markers of cocaine toxicity in the human heart. NIDA Res. Mongr. 1991; 108: 202
  • Billman G. E. Mechanisms responsible for the cardiotoxic effects of cocaine. FASEB J. 1990a; 4: 2469
  • Billman G. E. The effect of carbachol and cyclic GMP on susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation. FASEB J. 1990b; 4: 1668
  • Billman G. E. The antiarrhythmic and anti-fibrillatory effects of calcium antagonists. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol 1991; 18(Suppl. 10)S1–07
  • Billman G. E. Cellular mechanisms for ventricular fibrillation. NIPS 1992; 7: 254
  • Billman G. E. Effect of calcium channel antagonists on cocaine-induced malignant arrhythmias: protection against ventricular fibrillation. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1993a; 266: 407
  • Billman G. E. The intracellular chelator, BAPTA-AM, prevents cocaine-induced ventricular fibrillation. Am. J. Physiol. 1993b; 265: H15–29, Heart Circ. Physiol. 34
  • Billman G. E. The effect of adrenergic antagonists on cocaine-induced ventricular fibrillation: alpha-adrenergic but not beta-adrenergic antagonists prevent malignant arrhythmias independent of heart rate. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 1994; 269: 409
  • Billman G. E., Hoskins R. S. Cocaine-induced ventricular fibrillation protection afforded by the calcium antagonist verapamil. FASEB J. 1988; 2: 2990
  • Billman G. E., Hoskins R. S. Times series analysis of heart rate variability during submaximal exercise: evidence for reduced cardiac vagal tone in animals susceptible to ventricular fibrillation. Circulation 1989; 80: 146
  • Billman G. E., Lappi M. D. The effects of cocaine on cardiac vagal tone before and during coronary artery occlusion: cocaine exacerbates the autonomic response to myocardial ischemia. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1993; 22: 869
  • Block A., Covino B. G. Effect of local anesthetic agents on cardiac conduction and contractility. Reg. Anesth. 1981; 8: 55
  • Boehrer J. D., Moliterno D. J., Willard J. E., et al. Influence of labetalol on cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction in humans. Am. J. Med. 1993; 94: 608
  • Borgers M., De Clerck F., van Reempts J., et al. Selective blockade of cellular calcium overload by flunarizine. Int. Angiol. 1984; 3: 25
  • Branch C. A., Knuepfer M. M. Adrenergic mechanisms underlying cardiac and vascular responses to cocaine in conscious rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1992; 263: 742
  • Brickner M. E., Willard J. E., Eichhorn E. J., et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy associated with chronic cocaine abuse. Circulation 1991; 84: 1130
  • Briggs R. S. J., Birtwell A. J., Pohl J. E. F. Hypertensive response to labctalol in pheochromocytoma. Lancet 1978; 1: 1045
  • Brogan W. C., Lange R. A., Kim A. S., et al. Alleviation of cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction by nitroglycerin. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1991; 18: 581
  • Byck R. The Cocaine Papers by Sigmund Freud. Stonehill, New York 1974
  • Catravas J. D., Waters I. W. Acute cocaine intoxication in the conscious dog: studies on the mechanism of lethality. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1981; 217: 350
  • Chakko S., Fernandez A., Mellman T. A., et al. Cardiac manifestations of cocaine abuse: a cross-sectional study of asymptomatic men with a history of long-term abuse of “crack” cocaine. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1992; 20: 1168
  • Corr P. B., Yamada K. A., Witkowski R. X. Mechanisms controlling cardiac autonomic function and their relationships to arrhythmogenesis. The Heart and Cardiovascular System, H. A. Fozzard, E. Haber, R. B. Jennings, et al. Raven Press, New York 1986; 15–97
  • Covino B. G. Toxicity of local anesthetics. Advances in Anesthesia, R. K. Stoelting, P. G. Barash, T. J. Gallagher. Year Book Medical, New York 1986; Vol. 3: 37
  • Cregler L. L., Mark H. Relation of acute myocardial infarction to cocaine abuse. Am. J. Cardiol. 1985; 56: 794
  • Das G. Cocaine abuse in North America: a milestone in history. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1989; 33: 296
  • DelBalzo V., Rosen M. R., Malfatto G., et al. Specific alpha-1-adrenergic receptor subtypes modulate catecholamine-induced increases and decreases in ventricular automaticity. Circ. Res. 1990; 67: 1535
  • Derlet R. W., Albertson T. E. Acute cocaine toxicity: antagonism by agents interacting with adrenoceptors. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1990; 36: 225
  • Egashira K., Pipers F. S., Morgan J. P. Effects of cocaine on epicardial coronary artery reactivity in miniature swine after endothelial injury and high cholesterol feeding. In vivo and in vitro analysis. J. Clin. Invest. 1991a; 88: 1307
  • Egashira K., Morgan K. G., Morgan J. P. Effects of cocaine on excitation-contraction coupling of aortic smooth muscle from the ferret. J. Clin. Invest. 1991b; 87: 1322
  • Evans W. C. The comparative phytochemistry of the genus Erythroxylon. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1981; 3: 265
  • Evans D. B. Modulation of cAMP: mechanism for positive inotropic action. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1986; 8(Suppl. 9)S22
  • Fraker T. D., Temesy-Armos P. N., Brewster P. S., et al. Mechanism of cocaine-induced myocardial depression in dogs. Circulation 1990; 81: 1012
  • Flamenbaum W., Dubrow A. Labetalol. Cardiovascular Drug Therapy, F. H. Messerli. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia 1990; 579
  • Gantenberg N. S., Hageman G. R. Cocaine enhanced arrhythmogenesis: neural and non-neural mechanisms. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 1992; 70: 240
  • Garflnkel A., Raltz S. L., Harper R. M. Heart rate dynamics after acute cocaine administration. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1992; 19: 453
  • Gay G. R. Clinical management of acute and chronic cocaine poisoning. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1982; 11: 562
  • Gay G. R., Loper K. K. The use of labetalol in the management of cocaine crisis. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1988; 17: 282
  • Gitter M. J., Goldsmith S. R., Dunbar D. N., et al. Cocaine and chest pain: clinical features and outcome of patients hospitalized to rule out myocardial infarction. Ann. Int. Med. 1991; 115: 277
  • Glower D. D., Spratt J. A., Snow N. D., et al. Linearity of the Frank-Starling relationship in the intact heart: the concept of preload recruitable stroke work. Circulation 1985; 71: 994
  • Goldfrank L. R., Hoffman R. S. The cardiovascular effects of cocaine. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1991; 20: 165
  • Grinspoon L., Bakalar J. B. Coca and cocaine as medicines: an historical review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1981; 3: 149
  • Grossie J. Ca-dependent action of cocaine on K current in freshly dissociated dorsal root ganglia from rats. Am. J. Physiol. 1993; 265: C674, Cell Physiol. 32
  • Guinn M. M., Bedford J. A., Wilson M. C. Antagonism of intravenous cocaine lethality in non-human primates. Clin. Toxicol. 1980; 16: 499
  • Hale S. L., Alker K. J., Rezkalla S., et al. Adverse effects of cocaine in cardiovascular dynamics myocardial blood flow and coronary artery diameter in an experimental model. Am. Heart J. 1989; 118: 927
  • Hale S. L., Alker K. J., Rezkalla S. H., et al. Nifedipine protects the heart from the acute deleterious effects of cocaine if administered before but not after cocaine. Circulation 1991; 83: 1437
  • Hayes S. N., Moyer T. P., Morley D., et al. Intravenous cocaine causes epicardial coronary vasoconstriction in the intact dog. Am. Heart J. 1991; 121: 1639
  • Hogya P. T., Wolfson A. B. Chronic cocaine abuse associated with dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 1990; 8: 203
  • Inoue H., Zipes E. P. Cocaine-induced supersensitivity and arrhythmogenesis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1988; 11: 867
  • Isner J. M., Estes M., Thompson P. D., et al. Acute cardiac events temporally related to cocaine abuse. N. Eng. J. Med. 1986; 315: 1438
  • Janse M. J., Wit A. S. Electrophysiological mechanisms of ventricular arrhythmia resulting from myocardial ischemia and infarction. Physiol. Rev. 1989; 69: 1049
  • Johanson C. E., Fischman M. W. The pharmacology of cocaine related to its abuse. Pharmacol. Rev. 1989; 41: 3
  • Kabas J. S., Blanchard S. M., Matsuyama Y., et al. Cocaine-mediated impairment of cardiac conduction in the dog: a potential mechanism for sudden death after cocaine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1990; 252: 185
  • Kalsner S. Cocaine sensitization of coronary artery contraction: mechanism of drug-induced spasm. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 1993; 264: 1132
  • Karch S. B. The history of cocaine toxicity. Human Pathol. 1989; 20: 1037
  • Kasten G. W. Amide local anesthetic alterations of effective refractory period temporal dispersion: relationship to ventricular arrhythmias. Anesthesiology 1986; 65: 61
  • Kimura S., Bassett A. L., Xi H., et al. Early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity induced by cocaine: a possible mechanism of cocaine arrhythmo-genesis. Circulation 1992; 85: 2227
  • Kleber H. D. Cocaine abuse: historical, epidemiological and psychological perspectives. J. Clin. Psychol. 1988; 49: 3
  • Kloner R. A., Hale S., Alker K., et al. The effects of acute and chronic cocaine use on the heart. Circulation 1992; 85: 407
  • Kuhn F. E., Gillis R. A., Virmani R., et al. Cocaine produces coronary artery vasoconstriction independent of an intact endothelium. Chest 1992; 102: 581
  • Kurtz T., Yamada K. A., Da Torre S. D., et al. Alpha-adrenergic system and arrhythmias in ischaemic heart disease. Eur. Heart J. 1991; 12(Suppl. F)88
  • Lange R. A., Cigarro R. G., Yancy C. W., Jr., et al. Cocaine-induced coronary artery vasoconstriction. N. Eng. J. Med. 1989; 321: 1357
  • Lange R. A., Cigarro R. G., Flores E., et al. Potentiation of cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction by beta-adrenergic blockade. Ann. Int. Med. 1990; 112: 897
  • Langer S. Z. Presynaptic regulation of release of catecholamines. Pharmacol. Rev. 1981; 32: 337
  • Langer S. Z., Enero M. A. The potentiation of responses to adrenergic nerve stimulation in the presence of cocaine: its relationship to metabolic fate of released norepinephrine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1974; 191: 431
  • Lappi M. D., Billman G. E. Effect of ryanodine on ventricular fibrillation induced by myocardial ischemia. Cardiovasc. Res. 1993; 27: 2152
  • Lathers C. M., Tyau L. S. Y., Spino M. M., et al. Cocaine-induced seizures, arrhythmias, and sudden death. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1988; 28: 584
  • Levine S. R., Washington J. M., Kieran S. N., et al. “Crack” cocaine-associated stroke. Neurology 1987; 37: 1849
  • Levy M. N. Role of calcium in arrhythmogenesis. Circulation 1989; 80(Suppl. IV)IV31
  • Litovitz T. L., Schmitz B. F., Holm K. C. 1989 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers national data collection system. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 1989; 5: 495
  • Liu C-P., Tunin C., Kass D. A. Transient time course of cocaine-induced cardiac depression versus sustained peripheral vasoconstriction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1993; 21: 260
  • Mac Donald D. I. Cocaine leads emergency visits. JAMA 1987; 258: 2029
  • Mahler F., Ross J., Jr., O'Rourke R. A., et al. Effects of changes in preload, afterload, and inotropic state on ejection and isovolumetric phase measures of contractility in the conscious dog. Am. J. Cardiol. 1975; 35: 626
  • Marban E., Weir W. G. Ryanodine as a tool to determine the contributions of calcium entry and calcium release to the calcium transient and contraction of cardiac Purkinje fibers. Circ. Res. 1985; 56: 133
  • Mathias D. W. Cocaine-associated myocardial ischemia: review of clinical and angiographic findings. Am. J. Med. 1986; 81: 675
  • Mayer E. The toxic effects following the use of local anesthetics. An analysis of reports of forty-three deaths submitted to the committee for the study of toxic effects of local anesthetics of the American Medical Association. JAMA 1924; 82: 876
  • Mehta S. K., Finkelhor R. S., Anderson R. L., et al. Transient myocardial ischemia in infants prenatally exposed to cocaine. J. Pediatr. 1993; 122: 945
  • Merillat J. C., Lakatta E. G., Hano O., et al. Role of calcium and the calcium channel in the initiation and maintenance of ventricular fibrillation. Circ. Res. 1990; 67: 1115
  • Mittleman R. E., Weth C. V. Death caused by recreational cocaine use: an update. JAMA 1984; 252: 1889
  • Milnor R. L., Jr., Scott B. D., Brown D. D., et al. Cocaine-induced myocardial infarction in patients with normal coronary arteries. Ann. Int. Med. 1991; 115: 797
  • Morcos N. C., Fairhurst A., Henry W. L. Direct myocardial effects of cocaine. Cardiovasc. Res. 1993; 27: 269
  • Mortimer W. G. Peru: History of Coca, the “Divine Plant” of Incas. With an Introductory Account of the Incas and of Andean Indians of Today Vail. reprinted by AMS Press, New York 1901, New York, 1978
  • Mueller P. J., Knuepfer M. M. Coronary vascular effects of cocaine in rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 1994; 268: 97
  • Nanji A. A., Filipenko J. D. Asystole and ventricular fibrillation associated with cocaine intoxication. Chest 1984; 85: 132
  • Om A., Ellahham S., Vetrovec G. W., et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy in normotensive cocaine users. Am. Heart J. 1993; 125: 1441
  • Pagel P. S., Power M. W., Kenny D., et al. Cocaine depresses myocardial contractility and prolongs isovolumetric relaxation in conscious dogs with partial autonomic nervous system blockade. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1992; 20: 25
  • Peng S. K., Fench W. J., Pelikan P. C. Direct cocaine cardiotoxicity demonstrated by endomyocardial biopsy. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 1989; 113: 842
  • Perreault C. L., Hague N. L., Ransil B., et al. The effects of cocaine on intracellular Ca2+ handling and myofilament Ca2+ responsiveness of ferret ventricular myocardium. Br. J. Pharmacol. 1990; 101: 679
  • Perreault C. L., Hague N. L., Morgan K. G., et al. Negative inotropic and relaxant effects of cocaine on myopathic human ventricular myocardium and epicardial coronary arteries in vitro. Cardiovasc. Res. 1993; 27: 262
  • Pollan S., Tadjziechy M. Esmolol in the management of epinephrine and cocaine-induced cardiovascular toxicity. Anesth. Analg. 1989; 69: 663
  • Price F. W., Leaky A. B. Grave and prolonged cardiac failure following the use of cocaine in dental surgery. Lancet 1911; 1: 797
  • Pryzwara D. A., Dambach G. E. Direct actions of cocaine on cardiac cellular electric activity. Circ. Res. 1989; 65: 185
  • Rappolt R. T., Gay G. R., Inaba D. S. Propranolol. A specific antagonist of cocaine. Clin. Toxicol. 1977; 10: 265
  • Resnick R. B., Kestenbaum R. S., Schwartz L. K. Acute systemic effects of cocaine in man: a controlled study by intranasal and intravenous routes. Science 1977; 195: 696
  • Robin E. D., Wong R. J., Ptashne K. A. Increased lung water after massive cocaine overdose in mice and improved survival related to beta-adrenergic blockade. Ann. Intern. Med. 1989; 110: 202
  • Rouse B. A. Trends in cocaine use in the general population. NIDA Res. Mongr. 1991; 108: 5
  • Ruben H., Morris L. E. Effect of cocaine on cardiac automaticity in the dog. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 1957; 106: 55
  • Schindler C. W., Tella S. R., Goldberg S. R. Adrenoceptor mechanisms in the cardiovascular effects of cocaine in conscious squirrel monkeys. Life Sci. 1992; 51: 653
  • Schwartz A. B., Janzen D., Jones R. T., et al. Electrocardiographic and hemodynamic effects of intravenous cocaine in awake and anesthetized dogs. J. Electrocardiol. 1989; 22: 159
  • Shannon R. P., Stambler B. S., Komamura K., et al. Cholinergic modulation of the coronary vasoconstriction induced by cocaine in conscious dogs. Circulation 1993; 87: 939
  • Stambler B. S., Morgan J. P., Mietus J., et al. Cocaine alters heart rate dynamics in conscious ferrets. Yale J. Biol. Med. 1991; 64: 143
  • Stambler B. S., Komamura K., Shara T., et al. Acute intravenous cocaine causes transient depression followed by enhanced left ventricular function in conscious dogs. Circulation 1993; 87: 1687
  • Stewart G., Rubin E., Thomas A. P. Inhibition by cocaine of excitation-contraction coupling in isolated cardiomyocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 1991; 260: H50
  • Suarez C., Arango A., Lester L. Cocaine-condom ingestion. Surgical treatment. JAMA 1972; 238: 1391
  • Tazelaar H. D., Karch S. B., Stephens B. G., et al. Cocaine and the heart. Human Pathol. 1987; 18: 195
  • Tella S. R., Korupolu G. R., Schindler C. W., et al. Pathophysiological and pharmacological mechanisms of acute cocaine toxicity in conscious rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1992; 262: 936
  • Temesy-Armos P. N., Fraker T. D., Jr., Brewster P. S., et al. The effects of cocaine on cardiac electrophysiology in conscious, unsedated dogs. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1991; 19: 883
  • Terzic A., Puceat M., Vassort G., et al. Cardiac alpha-1-adrenoceptors: an overview. Pharmacol. Rev. 1993; 45: 147
  • Tomita F., Bassett A. L., Myerburg R. J., et al. Effects of cocaine on sarcoplasmic reticulum in skinned rat heart muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 1993; 264: H845
  • Uszenski R. T., Gillis R. A., Schaer G. L., et al. Additive myocardial depressant effects of cocaine and ethanol. Am. Heart J. 1992; 124: 1276
  • VanDyke C., Byck R. Cocaine. Sci. Am. 1982; 246: 128
  • Vargas R., Gillis R. A., Ramwell P. W. Propranolol promotes cocaine-induced spasm of porcine coronary artery. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1991; 257: 644
  • Virmani R., Robinowitz M., Smialeh J. E., et al. Cardiovascular effects of cocaine: an autopsy study of 40 patients. Am. Heart J. 1988; 115: 1068
  • Vos M. A., Gorgels P. M., Leunissen J. D. M., et al. Flunarizine allows differentiation between mechanisms of arrhythmias in the intact heart. Circulation 1990; 81: 343
  • Vos M. A., Gorgels P. M., Leunissen J. D. M., et al. Further observations to confirm the arrhythmia mechanism-specific effects of flunarizine. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 1992; 19: 683
  • Watt T. B., Pruitt R. D. Cocaine-induced incomplete bundle branch block in dogs. Circ. Res. 1964; 15: 234
  • Weidmann S. Effect of calcium ions and local anaesthetics on electrical properties of Purkinje fibres. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 1955; 129: 568
  • Weiner R. S., Lockhart J. T., Schwartz R. G. Dilated cardiomyopathy and cocaine abuse: report of two cases. Am. J. Med. 1986; 81: 699
  • Wilkerson R. D. Cardiovascular effects of cocaine in conscious dogs: importance of fully functional autonomic and central nervous systems. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1988; 246: 466
  • Young D., Glauber J. J. Electrocardiographic changes resulting from acute cocaine toxicity. Am. Heart J. 1947; 34: 272

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.