Parenteral Midazolam Is Superior to Diazepam for Treatment of Prehospital Seizures

References

• Brokaw J, Olson L, Fullerton L, Tandberg D, Sklar D. Repeated ambulance use by patients with acute alcohol intoxication, seizure disorder, and respiratory illness. Am J Emerg Med. Mar 1998;16(2):141–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard J, Osmond MH, Nesbitt L, Stiell IG. Management and outcomes of pediatric patients transported by emergency medical services in a Canadian prehospital system. CJEM. Jan 2006;8(1):6–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Treiman DM, Meyers PD, Walton NY, Collins JF, Colling C, Rowan AJ, Handforth A, Faught E, Calabrese VP, Uthman BM, Ramsay RE, Mamdani MB.. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Veterans Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group. N Engl J Med. Sep 17 1998;339(12):792-798.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Recommendations of the Epilepsy Foundation of America's Working Group on Status Epilepticus. JAMA. Aug 18 1993;270(7):854–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowenstein DH, Alldredge BK. Status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. Apr 2 1998;338(14):970–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Millikan D, Rice B, Silbergleit R. Emergency treatment of status epilepticus: current thinking. Emerg Med Clin North Am. Feb 2009;27(1):101–13, ix.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pellock JM. Management of acute seizure episodes. Epilepsia. 1998;39(S1):S28–S35.
   Google Scholar
• Claassen J, Hirsch LJ, Mayer SA. Treatment of status epilepticus: a survey of neurologists. J Neurol Sci. Jul 15 2003;211(1–2):37–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley DF, Kross JF. Use of midazolam in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Clin Ther. Nov-Dec 1998;20(6):1093–105.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rey E, Treluyer JM, Pons G. Pharmacokinetic optimization of benzodiazepine therapy for acute seizures: focus on delivery routes. Clin Pharmacokinet. Jun 1999;36(6):409–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walker M. Status epilepticus: an evidence based guide. BMJ. Sep 24 2005;331(7518):673–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gottwald MD, Akers LC, Liu PK, et al. Prehospital stability of diazepam and lorazepam. Am J Emerg Med. Jul 1999;17(4):333–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McMullan JT, Pinnawin A, Jones E, Denninghoff K, Siewart N, Spaite DW, Zaleski E, Silbergleit R. Neurological Emergencies Treatment Trials Investigators.The 60-day temperature-dependent degradation of midazolam and lorazepam in the prehospital environment. Prehosp Emerg Care. Jan-Mar 2013;17(1):1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhillon S, Ngwane E, Richens A. Rectal absorption of diazepam in epileptic children. Arch Dis Child. Apr 1982;57(4):264–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nakken KO, Lossius MI. Buccal midazolam or rectal diazepam for treatment of residential adult patients with serial seizures or status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Scand. Aug 2011;124(2):99–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midazolam injections. Curr Drug Shortage Bull. 2013; www. ashp.org/DrugShortages/Current/Bulletin.aspx?id=858. Accessed 11/21/2013, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Lorazepam injectable presentations. Curr Drug Shortage Bull. 2013; www.ashp.org/DrugShortages/Current/Bulletin. aspx?id=747. Accessed 11/21/2013, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Appleton RE, Sweeney A, Choonara I, Robson J, Molyneux E. Lorazepam versus diazepam in the acute treatment of epileptic seizures and status epilepticus. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37:682–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leppik IE, Derivan AT, Homan RW, Walker J, Ramsay RE, Patrick B. Double-blind study of lorazepam and diazepam in status epilepticus. JAMA. Mar 18 1983;249(11):1452–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lahat E, Goldman M, Barr J, Bistritzer T, Berkovitch M. Comparison of intranasal midazolam with intravenous diazepam for treating febrile seizures in children: prospective randomised study. BMJ. Jul 8 2000;321(7253):83–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad S, Ellis JC, Kamwendo H, Molyneux E. Efficacy and safety of intranasal lorazepam versus intramuscular paraldehyde for protracted convulsions in children: an open randomised trial. Lancet. May 13 2006;367(9522):1591–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung OR, Dyck JB, Varvel J, Shafer SL, Stanski DR. Comparative absorption kinetics of intramuscular midazolam and diazepam. Can J Anaesth. May 1996;43(5 Pt 1):450–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riss J, Cloyd J, Gates J, Collins S. Benzodiazepines in epilepsy: pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. Acta Neurol Scand. Aug 2008;118(2):69–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silbergleit R, Lowenstein D, Durkalski V, Conwit R, Neurological Emergency Treatment Trials I. RAMPART (Rapid Anticonvulsant Medication Prior to Arrival Trial): a double-blind randomized clinical trial of the efficacy of intramuscular midazolam versus intravenous lorazepam in the prehospital treatment of status epilepticus by paramedics. Epilepsia. Oct 2011;52(Suppl 8):45–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gathwala G, Goel M, Singh J, Mittal K. Intravenous diazepam, midazolam and lorazepam in acute seizure control. Indian J Pediatr. Mar 2012;79(3):327–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jagoda A, Riggio S. Refractory status epilepticus in adults. Ann Emerg Med. Aug 1993;22(8):1337–48.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dionisio S, Brown H, Boyle R, Blum S. Managing the generalised tonic–clonic seizure and preventing progress to status epilepticus: a stepwise approach. Intern Med J. Jul 2013;43(7):739–46.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McMullan J, Sasson C, Pancioli A, Silbergleit R. Midazolam versus diazepam for the treatment of status epilepticus in children and young adults: a meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. Jun 2010;17(6):575–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah I, Deshmukh CT. Intramuscular midazolam vs intravenous diazepam for acute seizures. Indian J Pediatr. Aug 2005;72(8):667–70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scott RC, Besag FM, Neville BG. Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomised trial. Lancet. Feb 20 1999;353(9153):623–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton R, Macleod S, Martland T. Drug management for acute tonic-clonic convulsions including convulsive status epilepticus in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(3):CD001905.
   Google Scholar
• de Haan GJ, van der Geest P, Doelman G, Bertram E, Edelbroek P. A comparison of midazolam nasal spray and diazepam rectal solution for the residential treatment of seizure exacerbations. Epilepsia. Mar 2010;51(3):478–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humphries LK, Eiland LS. Treatment of acute seizures: is intranasal midazolam a viable option? J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. Apr 2013;18(2):79–87.
   Google Scholar
• Klimach VJ, Epic Clinical N. The community use of rescue medication for prolonged epileptic seizures in children. Seizure. Jun 2009;18(5):343–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar