Computer-Assisted Training and Learning in Surgery

References

• Ahmed M, Meech J F, Timoney A. Virtual reality in medicine. Br J Urol 1997; 80(Suppl 3)46–52
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allen J, Evans A, Foulkes J, French A. Simulated surgery in the summative assessment of general practice training: results of a trial in the Trent and Yorkshire regions. Br J Gen Pract 1998; 48: 1219–1223
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anastakis D J, Regehr G, Reznick R K, et al. Assessment of technical skills transfer from the bench training model to the human model. Am J Surg 1999; 177: 167–170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagley J S. The problems of surgeons in training. J Royal Coll Surg Edinburgh 1996; 41: 206–207
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bahnson H T. Education of a surgical chairman. Ann Surg 1988; 208: 247–253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker J D, 3rd, Reines H D, Wallace C T. Learning style analysis in surgical training. Am Surg 1985; 51: 494–496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes R W. Surgical handicraft: teaching and learning surgical skills. Am J Surg 1987; 153: 422–427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes R W, Lang N P, Whiteside M F. Halstedian technique revisited. Innovations in teaching surgical skills. Ann Surg 1989; 210: 118–121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrows H S. Problem-based, self-directed learning. JAMA 1983; 250: 3077–3080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett R H. Teaching from patients. Medical Education: A Surgical Perspective, R H Bartlett, W E Strodel, G B Zelenock, M L Harper, J G Turcotte. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI 1986; 7–22
   Google Scholar
• Beckmann C R, Lipscomb G H, Ling F W, Beckmann C A, Johnson H, Barton L. Computer-assisted video evaluation of surgical skills. Obstet Gyn 1995; 85: 1039–1041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bevan P G. The craft of surgery. The anastomosis workshop, March 1981. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 1981; 63: 405–410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blue A V, Griffith C H, 3rd, Wilson J, Sloan D A, Schwartz R W. Surgical teaching quality makes a difference. Am J Surg 1999; 177: 86–89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodily K C. Presidential address. Surgeons and technology. Am J Surg 1999; 177: 351–353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle D E, Gius J A. Tie and suture training board. Surgery 1968; 63: 434–436
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brailovsky C A, Grand'Maison P, Lescop J. A largescale multicenter objective structured clinical examination for licensure. Acad Med 1992; 67: S37–S39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridges M, Diamond D L. The financial impact of teaching surgical residents in the operating room. Am J Surg 1999; 177: 28–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bro-Nielsen M, Helfrick D, Glass B, Zeng X, Connacher H. VR simulation of abdominal trauma surgery. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality: Art, Science, and Technology, J D Westwood, H M Hoffman, D Stredney, S J Weghorst. 10s Press, Amsterdam 1998; 117–123
   Google Scholar
• Bruffee K A. Making the most of knowledgeable peers. Change 1994; 39
   Google Scholar
• Burt D E. Virtual reality in anaesthesia. Br J Anaest 1995; 75: 472–480
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalabian J, Garman K, Wallace P, Dunnington G. Clinical breast evaluation skills of house officers and students. Am Surg 1996; 62: 840–845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang G, Cook D, Maguire T, Skakun E, Yakimets W W, Warnock G L. Problem-based learning: its role in undergraduate surgical education. Can J Surg 1995; 38: 13–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chopra V., Gesink B J, de Jong J, Bovill J G., Spierdijk J, Brand R. Does training on an anaesthesia simulator lead to improvement in performance?. Br J Anaest 1994; 73: 293–297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coe N P, Hirvela E, Garb J L, Friedmann P. Surgical education: a decade of change. Current Surg 1990; 47: 317–321
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Companion M A, Tarr R W, Jacobs J W, Moshell J M. Collaborative learning: Migration of distributed interactive simulation to educational applications. Distributed Interactive Simulation Systems for Simulation and Training in the Aerospace Environment, T L Clarke. SPIE Optical Engineering Press, Bellingham, WA 1995; 136–148
   Google Scholar
• Copeland E M, 3rd, Flynn T C, Ross W E. Impact of managed care on one training program. University of Florida at Gainesville. Arch Surg 1995; 130: 930–931
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotin S, Dawson S, Meglan D., . ICTS, An Interventional Cardiology Training System. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2000. Envisioning Healing: Interactive Technology and the Patient-Practitioner Dialogue, J Westwood, H Hoffman, G Mogel, R Robb, D Stredney, et al. 10s Press, Amsterdam 2000; 59–65
   Google Scholar
• DaRosa D A, Dunnington G L, Sachdeva A K, et al. A model for teaching medical students in an ambulatory surgery setting. Acad Med 1992; 67: S45–s47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De S, Srinivasan M A. Thin walled models for haptic and graphical rendering of soft tissues in surgical simulations. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality, J D Westwood, H M Hoffman, R A Robb, D Stredney. 10s Press, Amsterdam 1999; 94–99
   Google Scholar
• Debas H T. Impact of the changing economy and new technology on surgical practice and education. Invest Radiol 1993; 28(Suppl 3)S23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Debas H T. Impact of managed care on funding of surgical residencies. Arch Surg 1995; 130: 929–930
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delp S L, Loan J P, Hoy M G, Zajac F E, Topp E L, Rosen J M. An interactive graphics-based model of the lower extremity to study orthopaedic surgical procedures. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1990; 37: 757–767
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DesCteaux J G, Lecltre H. Learning surgical technical skills. Can J Surg 1995; 38: 33–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devitt P, Cehic D, Palmer E. Computers in medical education 2. Use of a computer package to supplement the clinical experience in a surgical clerkship: an objective evaluation. Aust NZ J Surg 1998; 68: 428–431
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Doty J R, Liddicoat J R., Salomon N W, Greene P S. Surgical education via the Internet: the Cardiothoracic Surgery Network. Maryland Med J 1998; 47: 264–266
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Downing S M., English D C, Dean R E. Resident ratings of surgical faculty. Improved teaching effectiveness through feedback. Am Surg 1983; 49: 329–332
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downs S M, Friedman C P, Marasigan F, Gartner G. A decision analytic method for scoring performance on computer-based patient simulations. The Emergence of “Intemetable” Health Care: Systems That Really Work, D R Masys. Hanley & Belfus, Philadelphia 1997, The 1997. AMIA Annual Fall Symposium (formerly SCAMC)
   Google Scholar
• Drew P J, Cule N, Gough M, et al. Optimal education techniques for basic surgical trainees: lessons from education theory. J Royal Coll Surg Edinburgh 1999; 44: 55–56
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dunnington G, Reisner L., Witzke D, Fulginiti J. Structured single-observer methods of evaluation for the assessment of ward performance on the surgical clerkship. Am J Surg 1990; 159: 423–426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunnington G, Witzke D, Rubeck R, Beck A, Mohr J, Putnam C. A comparison of the teaching effectiveness of the didactic lecture and the problem-oriented small group session: a prospective study. Surgery 1987; 102: 291–296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunnington G L., DaRosa D A. Changing surgical education strategies in an environment of changing health care delivery systems. World J Surg 1994; 18: 734–737, discussion 733
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Khalili N, Brodlie K, Kessel Wester D. A webbased surgical training system. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2000. Envisioning Healing: Interactive Technology and the Patient-Practitioner Dialogue, J Westwood, H Hoffman, G Mogel, R Robb, D Stredney. 10s Press, Amsterdam 2000; 69–75
   Google Scholar
• Endean E D, Sloan D A, Veldenz H C, Donnelly M B, Schwarcz T H. Performance of the vascular physical examination by residents and medical students. J Vasc Surg 1994; 19: 149–154, discussion 155–156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson K, Krampe R, Tesch-Romer C. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychol Rev 1993; 100: 363–406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faulkner H, Regehr G, Martin J, Reznick R. Validation of an objective structured assessment of technical skill for surgical residents. Acad Med 1996; 71: 1363–1365
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferenchick G, Simpson D, Blackman J, DaRosa D, Dunnington G. Strategies for efficient and effective teaching in the ambulatory care setting. Acad Med 1997; 72: 277–280
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fletcher-Flinn C M, Gravatt B. The efficacy of computer assisted instruction (CAI): a meta-analysis. J Educational Computing Res 1995; 12: 219–242
   Google Scholar
• Flexner A. Medical Education in the United States and Canada. Carnegie Foundation, New York 1910
   Google Scholar
• Folse J R. Surgical education -addressing the challenges of change. Surgery 1996; 12: 575–579
   Google Scholar
• Folse R. Conflicts in accreditation of postgraduate surgical education. Current Surg 1986; 43: 368–372
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Folse R. Surgeons as educators -College aims to improve teaching skills. ACS Bulletin. 1993; 78: 31–33
   Google Scholar
• Folse R J, Andriole D P, Debas H T, et al. Prerequisite objectives for graduate surgical education: a study of the Graduate Medical Education Committee American College of Surgeons. J Am Coll Surg 1998; 186: 50–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedl R, Preisack M, Schefer M, . Cardioop: An integrated approach to teleteaching in cardiac surgery. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2000. Envisioning Healing: Interactive Technology and the Patient-Practitioner Dialogue, J Westwood, H Hoffman, G Mogel, R Robb, D Stredney, et al. IOS Press, Amsterdam 2000; 76–82
   Google Scholar
• Gibbons R D, Baker R J, Skinner D B. Field articulation testing: a predictor of technical skills in surgical residents. J Surg Res 1986; 41: 53–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldiez B F. History of networked simulations. Distributed Interactive Simulation Systems for Simulation and Training in the Aerospace Environment, T L Clarke. SPIE Optical Engineering Press, Bellingham, WA 1995; 39–58
   Google Scholar
• Gorey T F. Training in minimally invasive therapy and its impact on traditional surgical education [editorial]. Irish J Med Sci 1997; 166: 1–2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorman P J, Murray W B, Bholat O S, Henry J, Schelper D, Krummel T M. Crisis resource management training: optimizing surgeon performance under stress. Association for Surgical Education, Nineteenth Annual Meeting, Boston, MA, 1999; 39
   Google Scholar
• Gorman P J, Lieser J D, Murray W B, Haluck R S, Krummel T M. Evaluation of skill acquisition using a force feedback, virtual reality based surgical trainer. Medicine Meets Vhal Reality, J D Westwood, H M Hoffman, R A Robb, D Stredney. IOS Press, Amsterdam 1999; 121–123
   Google Scholar
• Graham E A. Graduate training for surgery from the viewpoint of the American Board of Surgery. Bulletin Am Coll Surg 1938; 23: 33–34
   Google Scholar
• Greenfield L G. Support of graduate medical education. Current Surg 1986; 43: 271
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Griffen W O, Jr. Surgical residency: on-the-job training or education?. Am J Surg 1980; 140: 720–723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grillo H C. To impart this art: the development of graduate surgical education in the United States. Surgery 1999; 125: 1–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grillo H C. To impart this art: the development of graduate surgical education in the United States [see comments]. Surgery 1999; 125: 1–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grosfeld J L. Presidential address. Visions: medical education and surgical training in evolution. Arch Surg 1999; 134: 590–598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris C J, Herbert M., Steele R J. Psychomotor skills of surgical trainees compared with those of different medical specialists. Br J Surg 1994; 81: 382–383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heppell J, Beauchamp G, Chollet A. Ten-year experience with a basic technical skills and perioperative management workshop for first-year residents. Can J Surg 1995; 38: 27–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrmann J B. A self-education program for general surgical residents. Current Surg 1987; 44: 93–96
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoffman H, Murray M. Anatomic Visualizer: Realizing the vision of a VR-based leaming environment. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality, J D Westwood, H M Hoffman, R A Robb, D Stredney. 10.9 Press, Amsterdam 1999; 134–140
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman H, Vu D. Virtual reality: teaching tool of the twenty-first century?. Acad Med 1997; 72: 1076–1081
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman H M. Virtual reality meets medical education. Interactive Technology and the New Paradigm for Healthcare, R M Satava, K Morgan, H Sieburg, R Mattheus, J Christensen. 10s Press and Ohmsha, Amsterdam 1995; 130–136
   Google Scholar
• Howard S, Gaba D, Fish K, Yang G, Sarnquist F. Anesthesia crisis resource management training: teaching anesthesiologists to handle critical incidents. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 1992; 63: 763–770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Issenberg S B, McGaghie W C, Hart I R, et al. Simulation technology for health care professional skills training and assessment. JAMA 1999; 282: 861–866
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen D C. The pursuit of excellence in graduate surgical education. Visions of the Arizona experience. Am J Surg 1980; 139: 673–676
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John N, Phillips N. Surgical simulators using the WWW. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2000. Envisioning Healing: Interactive Technology and the Patient-Practitioner Dialogue, J. Westwood, H Hoffman, G Mogel, R Robb, D Stredney. IOS Press, Amsterdam 2000; 146–152
   Google Scholar
• Johnson W L, Rickel J, Stiles R, Muno A. Integrating pedagogical agents into virtual environments. Presence 1998; 7: 523–546
   Google Scholar
• Johnston R, Bhoyrul S, Way L, et al. Assessing a virtual reality surgical skills simulator. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics 1996; 29: 608–617
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jones K. Simulations : a handbook for teachers. Kogan Page-Nichols Pub Co, London-New York 1980; 125
   Google Scholar
• Kay C L, Evangelou H A. A review of the technical and clinical aspects of virtual endoscopy. Endoscopy 1996; 28: 768–775
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowles M S. Andragogy in action. The Jossey-Bass management series. 1st edn. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco 1984; 9
   Google Scholar
• Krummel T M. High-tech training tools available. Bulletin Am Coll Surg 1998; 83: 44–45
   Google Scholar
• Larson C B. History and organization of the traditional orthopaedic residency. Clin Orthop Rel Res 1971; 75: 17–21
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Macala J C. Sponsored experiential programs-Learning by doing in the workplace. Experiential and Simulation Techniques for Teaching Adults, L H Lewis. Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco 1986; 57–70
   Google Scholar
• Marescaux J, ClCment J M, Tassetti V, et al. Virtual reality applied to hepatic surgery simulation: the next revolution. Ann Surg 1998; 228: 627–634
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin J A, Regehr G, Reznick R, et al. Objective structured assessment of technical skill (OSATS) for surgical residents. Br J Surg 1997; 84: 273–278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGregor D B, Arcomano T R, Bjerke H S, Little A G. Problem orientation is a new approach to surgical education. Am J Surg 1995; 170: 656–658, discussion 658–659
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan B A. Early experience with simulated trauma resuscitation [see comments]. Can J Surg 1999; 42: 205–210
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mennin S P, Kalishman S. Student assessment. Acad Med 1998; 73: S46–S54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oneal R M, Dingman R O, Grabb W C. The teaching of plastic surgical techniques to medical students. Plastic Reconstr Surg 1967; 40: 494–498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Toole R, Playter R, Blank W, Cornelius N, Toberts W, Raibert M. A novel virtual reality surgical trainer with force feedback: surgeon vs. medical student performance. The Second Phantom Users Group Workshop, J K Salisbury, M A Srinivasan. MIT, Dedham, MA 1997
   Google Scholar
• O'Toole R V, Playter R R, Krummel T M, et al. Measuring and developing suturing technique with a virtual reality surgical simulator [see comments]. J Am Coll Surg 1999; 189: 114–127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelletier M P. Undergraduate surgical education in the twenty-first century. Can J Surg 1995; 38: 42–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Provan J L. Surgical education: time for a change? [editorial; comment]. Can J Surg 1995; 38: 8–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prystowsky J B, Regehr G, Rogers D A, Loan J P, Hiemenz L L., Smith K M. A virtual reality module for intravenous catheter placement. Am J Surg 1999; 177: 171–175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regian J W, Shebilske W, Monk J. A preliminary empirical evaluation of virtual reality as an instructional medium for visual-spatial tasks. J Communication 1992; 42: 136–149
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reznick R, Regehr G, MacRae H, Martin J, McCulloch W. Testing technical skill via an innovative “bench station” examination. Am J Surg 1997; 173: 226–230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reznick R K. Teaching and testing technical skills. Am J Surg 1993; 165: 358–361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchie W P, Jr. Graduate surgical education in the era of managed care: a statement from the American Board of Surgery [editorial]. J Am Coll Surg 1997; 184: 311–2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosen J M, Soltanian H, Redett R J, Laub D R. Evolution of virtual reality. IEEE Eng Med Biol 1996; 16–21
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothbaum B O, Hodges L F, Kooper R, Opdyke D, Williford J S., North M. Effectiveness of computergenerated (virtual reality) graded exposure in the treatment of acrophobia. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 626–628
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sachdeva A K, Blair P G, Kelliher G J, et al. Redesigning the surgery clerkship at MCP Hahnemann School of Medicine to address the educational needs of generalists. Acad Med 1999; 74: S98–S101
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sachdeva A K, Loiacono L A, Amiel G E., Blair P G, Friedman M, Roslyn J J. Variability in the clinical skills of residents entering training programs in surgery. Surgery 1995; 118: 300–308, discussion 308–309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satava R M. Medical applications of virtual reality. J Med Systems 1995; 19: 275–280
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Satava R M. Virtual reality and telepresence for military medicine. Comp Biol Med 1995; 25: 229–236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satava R M. Virtual reality, telesurgery. and the new world order of medicine. J Image Guided Surg 1995; 1: 12–16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Satava R M. Advanced simulation technologies for surgical education. ACS Bulletin. 1996; 81: 77–81
   Google Scholar
• Satava R M. Cybersurgery: A new vision for general surgery. Cybersurgery: Advanced Technologies for Surgical Practice, R M Satava. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York 1998; 3–14
   Google Scholar
• Satava R M, Jones S B. Virtual environments for medical training and education. Presence 1996; 6: 139–146
   Google Scholar
• Sawyers J L. Presidential address. Graduate surgical education. Am Surg 1981; 47: 1–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schirmer W J, Galat J A., Moms J B, Persons M L, Shuck J M. The impact of a resident-directed survey on the education cumculum of a university surgical training program. Surgery 1991; 110: 405–410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder R. Virtual reality in the real world: history, applications and projections. Futures 1993; 963–972
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schueneman A L, Pickleman J, Freeark W. Age, gender, lateral dominance, and prediction of operative skill among general surgery residents. Surgery 1985; 98: 506–515
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schueneman A L, Pickleman J, Hesslein R, Freeark R J. Neuropsychologic predictors of operative skill among general surgery residents. Surgery 1984; 96: 288–295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz R W, Donnelly M B, Nash P P, Young B. Developing students' cognitive skills in a problembased surgery clerkship. Acad Med 1992; 67: 694–696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwid H A. Anesthesia and critical care simulators. Curr Op Anaesthesiol 1995; 8: 532–535
   Google Scholar
• Sloan D A, Donnelly M B, Johnson S B, Schwartz R W, Strodel W E. Use of an Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) to measure improvement in clinical competence during the surgical internship [see comments]. Surgery 1993; 114: 343–350, discussion 350–351
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloan D A, Donnelly M B, Schwartz R W, Strodel W E. The Objective Structured Clinical Examination. The new gold standard for evaluating postgraduate clinical performance. Ann Surg 1995; 222: 735–742
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Squire D, Giachino A A, Profitt A W, Heaney C. Objective comparison of manual dexterity in physicians and surgeons. Can J Surg 1989; 32: 467–470
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele R J, Walder C., Herbert M. Psychomotor testing and the ability to perform an anastomosis in junior surgical trainees. Br J Surg 1992; 79: 1065–1067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stotter A T, Becket A J, Hansen J P, Capperauld I, Dudley H A. Simulation in surgical training using freeze dried material. Br J Surg 1986; 73: 52–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strodel W E, Zelenock G B. Teaching and learning in the operating room. Medical Education: A Surgical Perspective, R H Bartlett, W E Strodel, G B Zelenock, M L Harper, J G Turcotte. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI 1986; 47–51
   Google Scholar
• Taffinder N, Sutton C, Fishwick R, McManus I C, Darzi A. Validation of virtual reality to teach and assess psychomotor skills in laparoscopic surgery: Results from randomised controlled studies using the MIST VR laparoscopic simulator. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality, J D Westwood, H M Hoffman, D Stredney, S J Weghorst. 10s Press, Amsterdam 1998; 124–130
   Google Scholar
• Taffinder N, Sutton C, Fishwick R J, McManus I C, Dani A. Validation of virtual reality to teach and assess psychomotor skills in laparoscopic surgery: results from randomised controlled studies using the MIST VR laparoscopic simulator. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics 1998; 50: 124–130
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tendick F, Downes M, Cavusoglu C M, Gantert W, Way L W. Development of virtual environments for training skills and reducing errors in laparoscopic surgery. Procedings of Surgical-Assist Systems, M S Bogner, S T Charles, W S Gmndfest, et al. SPE, Bellingham, WA 1998; 36–44
   Google Scholar
• Thompson J C. Impact of Managed Care on Surgical Education and Research. Boston, Massachusetts, October 20, 1994. Proceedings. Arch Surg 1995; 130: 925–941
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng C S, Lee Y Y, Chan Y P, Wu S S, Chiu A W. A PC-based surgical simulator for laparoscopic surgery. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality: Art, Science, Technology, J D Westwood, H M Hoffman, D Stredney, S J Weghorst. 10s Press, Amsterdam 1998; 155–160
   Google Scholar
• Tuggy M L. Virtual reality flexible sigmoidoscopy simulator training: impact on resident performance. J Am Board Family Pract 1998; 11: 426–433
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vince J. Virtual reality systems. SIGGRAPH series, Addison-Wesley Pub Co, Wokingham MA-ReadingEngland 1995; xv, 388, and [8] of plates
   Google Scholar
• Vining D J, Liu K, Choplin R H, Haponik E F. Virtual bronchoscopy. Relationships of virtual reality endobronchial simulations to actual bronchoscopic findings. Chest 1996; 109: 549–553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walt A J. The uniqueness of American surgical education and its preservation. Bulletin Am Coll Surg 1994; 79: 8–20
   Google Scholar
• Watson D C., Matthews H R. Manual skills of trainee surgeons. J Royal Coll Surg Edinburgh 1987; 32: 74–75
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weghorst S, Airola C, Oppenheimer P, . Validation of the Madigan ESS Simulator. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality, J D Westwood, H M Hoffman, D Stredney, S J Weghorst, et al. 10s Press, Amsterdam 1998; 399–405
   Google Scholar
• Weidenbach K. Staged encounters. Stanford Medicine 1999; 5: 3–12
   Google Scholar
• Weigelt J, Brasel K., Olson C, Thal E. Opinions of practicing general surgeons on surgical education. Am J Surg 1998; 176: 481–485
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winckel C P, Reznick R K, Cohen R, Taylor B. Reliability and construct validity of a structured technical skills assessment form. Am J Surg 1994; 167: 423–427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• York N L, DaRosa D A, Folse R. The learning needs of first-year surgical residents in the intensive care unit. Am J Surg 1996; 171: 608–611
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• York N L, Niehaus A H, Markwell S J, Folse J R. Evaluation of students' physical examination skills during their surgery clerkship. Am J Surg 1999; 177: 240–243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuidema G D, Lound J L. History, current concepts, and surgical manpower. Medical education: a surgical perspective, R H Bartlett, W E Strodel, G B Zelenock, M L Harper, J G Turcotte. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI 1986; 247–258
   Google Scholar