References
- Jennings G, Lunn PG, Elia M. The effect of endotoxin on gastrointestinal transit time and intestinal permeability. Clin. Nutr. 1995; 14: 35–41.
- Inglis TJ, Sherratt M, Sproat L, et al. Gastroduodenal dys-function and bacterial colonisation of ventilated lung. Lancet 1993; 341: 911–913.
- Atherton ST, White DJ. Stomach as source of bacteria colon-ising respiratory tract during artificial ventilation. Lancet 1978; ii: 968–969.
- Hillman KM, Riordan T, O'Farell SM, et al. Colonization of the gastric contents in critically ill patients. Crit. Care Med. 1982; 10: 444–447.
- Kromer W. The current status of opioid research on gastro-intestinal motility. Life Sci. 1989; 44: 579–589.
- Manara L, Bianchetti A. The central and peripheral influ-ences of opioids on gastrointestinal propulsion. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1985; 25: 249–273.
- Stein C. Peripheral mechanisms of opioid analgesia. Anesth. Analg. 1993; 76: 182–191.
- Holaday JW, Faden AT. Naloxane reversal of endotoxin hypotension suggests role of endorphins in shock. Nature 1978; 275: 450–451
- Boeuf B, Gauvin F, Guerguerion AM et al Therapy of shock with naloxane: A meta analysis. Crit. Care Med. 1998; 26: 1910–1916.
- Yuan CS, Foss JF, O'Connor M et al Methylnaltrexane prevents morphine-induced delay in oral-cecal transit time without affecting analgesia: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1996; 59: 469–475.
- Yuan CS, Foss JF, Osinski J et al. The safety and efficacy of oral methylnaltrexane in preventing morphine-induced delay in oral-cecal transit time. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1997; 61: 467–475.
- Wichterman KA, Baue AE, Chandry IH. Sepsis and septic shock: a review of laboratory models and proposal. J. Surg. Res. 1980; 29: 189–201.
- Pol O, Ferrer I, Puig M. Diarrhea associated with intestinal inflammation increases the potency of mu and delta opioids on the inhibition of gastrointestinal transit in mice. J. Pharm-acol. Exp. Ther. 1994; 270: 386–291.
- Ramabadran K, Bansinath M, Turndorf H, Puig M. Stereo-specific inhibition of gastrointestinal transit by kappa opioid agonist in mice. Fur. J. Pharmacol. 1988; 155: 329–331.
- Lord JAH, Waterfield AA, Hughes J Kosterlitz HW. Endo-genous opioid peptides: multiple agonists and receptors. Nature 1977; 267: 509–513.
- Mihara S, North RA. Opioids increase potassium conduc-tance in submucous neurons of guinea-pig ceacum by activating delta-receptors. Br. J. Pharmacol. 1986; 88: 315–322.
- Planas ME, Rodriguez L, Sanchez S, et al. Pharmacological evidence for the involvement of the endogenous opioid system in the response to local inflammation in the rat paw. Pain 1995; 60: 67–71.
- Stein C Millan MJ, Shippenberg TS, et al. Peripheral opioid receptors mediating antinociception in inflammation. Evi-dence for involvement of mu, delta and kappa receptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1990; 248: 1269–1275.
- Stein C, Hassan AHS, Przewlocki R, et al. Opioids from immunocytes interact with receptors on sensory nerves to inhibit nociception in inflammation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1990; 87: 5935–5939.
- Przewlocki R, Hassan AHS, Lason W, et al. Gene expression and localization of opioid peptides in immune cells on inflamed tissue. Functional role in antinociception. Neuro-science 1992; 48: 491–500.
- Weihe E, Nohr D, Hartschuh W. Immunohistochemical evidence for a co-transmitter role of opioid peptides in pri-mary sensory neurons. Prog. Brain Res. 1988; 74: 189–199.
- Shook JE, Lencke PK, Gehrig CA et al. Antidiarrheal prop-erties of supraspinal mu and delta and peripheral mu,delta and kappa opioid receptors. Irthibation of diarrhea without constipation. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1989; 249: 83–90.
- Pol 0, Planas E, Puig M. Peripheral effects of rtaloxane in mice with acute diarrhea associated with intestinal inflamm-ation. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1995; 272: 1271–1276.
- Brown NJ, Ramsey RD, Bagentoft C et al. The effect of an opiate receptor antagonist on the ileal brake mechanism in the rats. Pharmacology 1993; 47: 230–236.
- Lopez Y, Fiaramonti J, Bueno L. Central and peripheral control of postprandial pyloric motility by endogenous opiates and chlocystokinin in dogs. Gastroenterology 1991;101: 1249–1255.
- Puig MM, Pol O. Peripheral effects of opioids in a model of chronic intestinal inflammation in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1998; 287: 1068–1075.
- Roy S, Liu HC, Loh HH. Mu opioid receptor-knockout mice: the role of mu-opioid receptor in gastrointestinal transit. Brain Res. Mol. 1998; 56: 281–283.
- Freise N, Chevalier E, Anpel F et al. Reversal by kappa agonists of peritoneal irritation-induced ileus and visceral pain in rats. Life Sci. 1997; 60: 625–634.
- Riviere PJ, Pascoud X, Chevalier E et al. Fedotazine reverses ileus induced by surgery or peritonitis; action at peripheral kappa-opioid receptors. Gastroenterology 1993; 104: 724–731.
- Magnam J, Paterson SJ, Tavani A, Kosterlitz HW. The binding spectrum of narcotic analgesic drugs with different agonist and antagonist properties. Arch. Pharmacol. 1982; 319: 197–205.
- Asai T, Power I. Naloxone inhibits gastric emptying in the rat. Anesth. Analg. 1999; 88: 204–208.
- Brown BP, Schulze-Delrieu K, Scherier JE, Abu-Yousef MM. The configuration of the human gastroduodertal junction in the separate emptying of liquids and solids. Gastroenterology 1993; 105: 433–440.
- Asai T, Mapleson WW, Power I. Differential effects of clonidine and dexmedetomidirte on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal transit in the rat. Br. J. Anaesth. 1997; 78: 301–307.
- Gaginella TS, Bertko RJ, Kachur JF. Effect of dextrometh-orphan and levomethorphan on gastric emptying and intestinal transit in the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1987; 240: 388–296.
- Liberge M, Riviére PM, Buéno L. Influence of enkephalinase inhibitors on gastric emptying in mice depends on nature of the meal. Life Sci. 1988; 42: 2047–2053.
- Galligan JJ, Porreca F, Burks TF. Dissociation of analgesic and gastrointestinal effects of shock-released opioids. Brain Res. 1983; 271: 354–357.
- Fioramanti J, Fargeas MJ, Buéno L. Involvement of endogenous opiates in regulation of gastric emptying of fat test meals in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 1988; 255: G158–G161.
- Galligan JJ, Burks TF. Centrally mediated inhibition of small intestinal transit and motility by morphine in rats. J. Pharma-col. Exp. Ther. 1983; 226: 356–361.
- Porreca F, Burks. The spinal cord as asite of opioid effects on gastrointestinal transit in the mouse. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1983; 227: 22–27.