The impact of multiple infections on wild animal hosts: a review

References

• Crawley MJ. The population biology of predators, parasites and diseases. Blackwell. London, 1992
   Google Scholar
• Pullan R, Brooker S. The health impact of polyparasitism in humans: are we under- estimated the burden of parasitic diseases?. Parasitology. 2008; 135: 783–94. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rigaud T, Perrot-Minnot MJ, Brown MJF. Parasite and host assemblages: embracing the reality will improve our knowledge of parasite transmission and virulence. Proc Roy Soc Lond B. 2010; 277: 3693–702. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tompkins DM, Dunn AM, Smith MJ, Telfer S. Wildlife diseases: from individuals to ecosystems. J Anim Ecol. 2010; 80: 19–38. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Poulin R. Evolutionnary Ecology of parasites2nd ed. Princeton University Press. Princeton, 2007
   Google Scholar
• Petney TN, Andrews RM. Multiparasite communities in animals and humans: frequency, structure and pathogenic significance. Int J Parasitol. 1998; 28: 377–93. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bordes F, Morand S. Parasite diversity: an overlooked metric of parasite pressures?. Oikos. 2009; 118: 801–6. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Meeûs T, Renaud F. Parasites within the new phylogeny of eukaryotes. Trends Par. 2002; 18: 247–51. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunn C, Altizer S, Jones KE, Sechrest W. Comparative tests of parasite species richness in primates. Am Nat. 2003; 162: 597–614. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poulin R, Morand S. Parasite biodiversity. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, 2004
   Google Scholar
• Krasnov BR, Korallo-Vinarskaya NP, Vinarsky M-V, Shenbrot GI, Mouillot D, Poulin R. Searching for general patterns in parasite ecology: host identity versus environmental influence on gamasid mite assemblages in small mammals. Parasitology. 2008; 135: 229–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bordes F, Morand S. Helminth species diversity of mammals: parasite species richness is a host species attribute. Parasitology. 2008; 135: 1701–5. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Poulin R. Are they general laws in parasite ecology?. Parasitology. 2007; 134: 763–76. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guégan J-F, Morand S, Poulin R. Are there general laws in parasite community ecology? The emergence of spatial parasitology and epidemiology. Parasitism and ecosystems. Thomas F, Guégan J-F, Renaud FOxford University Press. Oxford, 2004; 22–42.
   Google Scholar
• Morand S, Krasnov BR. Why applying ecology law to epidemiology?. Trends Par. 2008; 24: 304–9. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Cox FEG. Concomitant infections, parasites and immune responses. Parasitology. 2001; 122: 23–38. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham AL. Ecological rules governing helminth-microparasite coinfection. PNAS. 2008; 105: 566–70. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behnke JM, Eira C, Rogan M, Gilbert FS, Torres J, Miquel J, Lewis JW. Helminth species richness in wild wood mice, Apodemus sylvaticus, is enhanced by the presence of the intestinal nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus. Parasitology. 2009; 136: 793–804. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Fenton A, Viney ME, Lello J. Detecting interspecific macroparasites interactions from ecological data: patterns and process. Ecol Let. 2010; 13: 606–15. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Telfer S, Lambin X. Birtles R, Beldomenico P, Burthe S, Paterson S, Begon M. Species interactions in a parasite community drive infection risk in a wildlife population. Science. 2010; 330: 243–46. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gause WC, Urban JF, Stadecker MJ. The immune responses to parasitic helminths: insights from murine models. Trends Immunol. 2003; 24: 269–77. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benwitch Z, Kalinkovich A, Weisman Z, Borkow G, Beyers N, Beyers AD. Can eradication of helminthic infections change the face of AIDS and Tuberculosis?. Immunol Today. 1999; 20: 485–87. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Druilhe P, Tall A, Sokhna C. Worms can worsen malaria: towards a new means to roll back malaria?. Trends Parasitol. 2005; 21: 359–62. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sangweme D, Shiff C, Kumar N. Plasmodium yoelii: Adverse outcome of non-lethal P. yoelii malaria during co-infection with Schistosoma mansoni in BALB/c mouse model. Exp Parasotol. 2009; 122: 254–59. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamya MR, Gasasira AF, Yeka A, Bakyaita N, Nsobyra SL, Francis D, et al.. Effects of HIV-1 infection on antimalarial treatment outcomes in Uganda: apopulation-based study. J Inf Dis. 2006; 193: 9–15. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otieno RO, Ouma C, Ong'echan JM, Keller CC, Were T, Waindia EN, et al.. Increased severe anemia in HIV-1-exposed and HIV-1-positive infants and children during acute malaria. AIDS. 2006; 20: 275–80. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ezeamama AE, Mc Garvey S, Acosta LP, Zierler S, Manalo DL, Wu HW, et al.. The synergistic effects of concomitant schistosomiasis, hookworm and Trichuris infections on children's anaemia burden. PLOS Neglect Trop Dis. 2008; 2: 1–5. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Mosquera J, Adler FR. Evolution of virulence: a unified framework for coinfections and superinfection. J Theor Biol. 1998; 195: 293–313. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor LH, Mackinnon MJ, Read AF. Virulence of mixed-clone and single-clone infections of the rodent malaria Plasmodium Chabaudi. Evolution. 1998; 52: 583–91. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Schjorring S, Koella JC. Sub-lethal effects of pathogens can lead to the evolution of lower virulence in multiple infections. Proc R Soc Lond B. 2003; 270: 189–93. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Ben-Ami F, Mouton L, Ebert D. The effects of multiple infections on the expression and evolution of virulence in a Daphnia-endoparasite system. Evolution. 2008; 62: 1700–11. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Davies CM, Fairbrother E, Webster JP. Mixed strain schistosome infections of snails and the evolution of parasite virulence. Parasitology. 2002; 124: 31–8. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Holmstad PR, Jensen KH, Skorping A. Ectoparasite intensities are correlated with endoparasite infection loads in willow ptarmigan. Oikos. 2008; 117: 515–20. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Graham AL, Cattadori IM, Lloyd-Smith JO, Bjørnstad ON. Transmission consequences of coinfection: cytokines write large?. Trends in Parasitol. 2007; 23: 284–91. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Ganz T. Hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism and mediator of anemia of inflammation. Blood. 2003; 102: 783–88. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahmoud AA, Woodruff AW. Mechanisms involved in the anaemia of schistosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1972; 66: 75–84. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babatunde OA, Clarkson AB, Shear HL. Pathogenesis of anemia in Trypanosoma brucei-infected mice. Inf Immun. 1972; 36: 1060–68.
   Google Scholar
• Graham AL, Allen JE, Read A. Evolutionary causes and consequences of immunopathology. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst. 2005; 36: 373–97. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Graham AL. When T-helpers cells don't help: immunopathology during concomitant infections. Quart Rev Biol. 2002; 77: 409–54. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Graham AL, Allen JE, Read A. Malaria-filaria coïnfection in mice makes malaria more severe unless filarial infection achieves patency. J Infect Dis. 2005; 191: 410–21. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham AL, Hayward AD, Watt KA, Pilkington JG, Pemberton JM, Nussey DH. Fitness correlates of heritable variation in antibody responsiveness in a wild mammal. Science. 2010; 330: 662–65. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Walsh PK, Brady MT, Finlay CM, Boon L, Kingston H, Mills G. Infection with a helminth parasite attenuates autoimmunity through TGF--mediated suppression of Th17 and Th1 responses. J Immunol. 2009; 183: 1577–86. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maizels RM, Balic A, Gomez-Escobar N, Nair M, Taylor MD, Allen JE. Helminth parasites-masters of regulation. Imm Rev. 2004; 201: 89–116. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmstad PR, Hudson PJ, Skorping A. The influence of a parasite community of a host population: a longitudinal study on willow ptarmigan and their parasites. Oikos. 2005; 111: 377–91. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Davidar P, Morton ES. Are multiple infections more severe for purple martins than single infections?. Auk. 2006; 123: 141–47. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• del Cerro S, Merino S, Martinez de la Puente J, Lobato E, Ruiz de Castaneda R, Rivero de Aguilar J, et al.. Carotenoid-based plumage colouration is associated with blood parasite richness and stress protein levels in blue tits (Cyanistes caerulus). Oecologia. 2010; 162: 825–35. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lello J, Boag B, Hudson PJ. The effects of single and concomitant infections on condition and fecundity of the wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Int J Parasitol. 2005; 35: 1509–15. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jolly D, Messier F. The effect of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis on reproduction and survival of wood bison in Wood Buffalo National Park. J Anim Ecol. 2005; 74: 543–51. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Jolles AE, Ezenwa V, Etienne RS, Turner WC, Olff H. Interactions between macroparasites and microparasites drive infection patterns in free -ranging African buffalo. Ecology. 2008; 89: 2239–50. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Munson L, Terio K, Kock R, Mlengeya T, Roelke ME, Dubovi E, et al.. Climate extremes promote fatal co-infections during Canine distemper Epidemics in African Lions. Plos One. 2008; 3: 1–6. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ezenwa VO, Etienne RS, Luikart G, Beja-Pereira A, Jolles AE. Hidden consequences of living in a wormy world: nematode-induced immune suppression facilitates tuberculosis invasion in African Buffalo. Am Nat. 2010; 176: 613–24. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Alzaga V, Vicente J, Villanua D, Acevedo P, Casas F, Gortazar C. Body condition and parasite intensity correlates with escape capacity in Iberian hares. Behav Ecol Soc. 2008; 62: 769–75. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harms G, Feldmeier H. HIV coinfection and tropical parasitic diseases-deleterious interactions in both directions?. Trop Med Int Health. 2002; 7: 479–88. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sokna C, Le Hesran JY, Mbaye PA, Akiana J, Camara P, Diop M. Increase of malaria attacks among children presenting concomitant infections by Schistosoma mansoni in Senegal. Malaria J. 2004; 117: 597–610.
   Google Scholar
• Wegner KM, Reusch TBH, Kalbe M. Multiple parasites are driving Major Histocompatibility Complex polymorphism in the wild. J Evol Biol. 2003; 16: 224–32. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sommer S. The importance of immune gene variability (MHC) in evolutionary ecology and conservation. Front Zool. 2005; 2: 16. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prugnolle F, Manica F, Charpentier M, Guégan J-F, Guernier V, Balloux F. Pathogen-driven selection and worldwide HLA class I diversity. Current Biol. 2005; 15: 1022–27. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goüy de Bellocq J, Charbonnel N, Morand S. Coevolutionary relationship between helminth diversity and MHC class II polymorphism in rodents. J Evol Biol. 2008; 21: 1144–50. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tollenaere C, Bryja J, Galan M, Cadet P, Deter J, Chaval Y, et al.. Multiple parasites mediate balancing selection at two MHC class II genes in the fossorial water vole: insights from multivariate analyses and population genetics. J Evol Biol. 2008; 21: 1307–20. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer-Lucht Y, Otten C, Püttker T, Pardini R, Metzger JP, Sommer S. Variety matters: adaptive genetic diversity and parasitic load in two mouse opossums from the Brazilian Atlantic coast. Conserv Genet. 2010; 11: 2001–13. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• šimková A, Ottovà E, Morand S. MHC variability, life traits and parasite diversity of European Cyprinid fish. Evol Ecol. 2006; 20: 465–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dionne M, Miller KM, Dodson JJ, Caron F, Bernatchez L. Clinal variation in MHC diversity with temperature: evidence for the role of host-pathogens interaction on local adaptation in Atlantic salmon. Evolution. 2007; 61: 2154–64. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harf R, Sommer S. Association between major histocompatibility complex class II DRB alleles and parasite load in the hairy-footed gerbil, Gerbillurus paeba, in the southern Kalahari. Mol Ecol. 2005; 14: 85–91. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer-Lucht Y, Sommer S. MHC diversity and the association to nematode parasitism in the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis). Mol Ecol. 2005; 14: 2233–43. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lenz T, Wells K, Pfeiffer M, Sommer S. Diverse MHC IIB allele repertoire increases parasite resistance and body condition in the Long-tailed (Leopoldamys sabanus). BMC Evol Biol. 2009; 9: 269. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner KM, Kalbe M, Kurtz J, Teusch TBH, Milinski M. Parasite selection for immunogenetic optimality. Science. 2003; 301: 1343. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolff J, Siva-Jothy MT. Invertebrate Ecological Immunity. Science. 2003; 301: 473–75. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Wegner KM, Kalbe M, Milinski M, Reusch TBH. Mortality selection during the 2003 European heat wave in three-spined sticklebacks: effects of parasites and MHC genotype. BMC Evol Biol. 2008; 8: 124. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kloch A, Babik W, Bajer A, Sinski E, Radwan J. Effects of an MHC-DRB genotype and allele number on the load of gut parasites in the bank voles Myodes glareolus. Mol Ecol. 2010; 19: 255–65. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stjernman M, Raberg L, Nilsson JA. Maximum host survival at intermediate parasite infection intensities. Plos One. 2008; 3: 1–3. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Hill AV, Allsopp CE, Kwiatkowski D, Anstey NM, Twumasi P, Rowe PA, et al.. Common West African HLA antigens are associated with protection from severe malaria. Nature. 1991; 352: 595–600. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill AV. The genomics and genetics of human infectious diseases susceptibility. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet. 2001; 2: 373–400. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paterson S, Wilson K, Pemberton JM. Major histocompatibility complex variation associated with juvenile survival and parasite resistance in a large unmanaged ungulate population. PNAS USA. 1998; 95: 3714–19. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwensow N, Dausmann K, Eberle M, Fietz J, Sommer S. Functional associations of similar MHC alleles and shared parasite species in two sympatric lemurs. Inf Gen Evol. 2010; 10: 662–68. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Oppelt C, Starkloff A, Rausch P, Von Holst D, Rödel H. Major histocompatibility complex variation and age-specific endoparasite load in subadult European rabbits. Mol Ecol. 2010; 19: 4155–67. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Oliver MK, Telfer S, Piertney SB. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) heterozygote superiority to natural multi-parasite infections in the water vole (Arvicola terrestris). Proc R Soc Lond B. 2009; 276: 1119–28. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radwan J, Biedrzycka A, Babik W. Does reduced MHC diversity decrease viability of vertebrate populations?. Biol Cons. 2009; 143: 537–44. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Smith S, Mang T, Goüy de Bellocq J, Schaschl H, Zeiotlhofer C, Hackländer K, Suchentrunk F. Homozygoty at a class II MHC locus depresses female reproductivity ability in European brown hares. Mol Ecol. 2010; 19: 4131–43. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Magnanou E, Fons R, Feliu C, Morand S. Physiological responses of insular wild black rat (Rattus rattus) to natural infection by the digenean trematode Fasciola hepatica. Parasitol Res. 2005; 99: 97–101. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Khokhlova IS, Krasnov BR, Kam M, Burdelova NI, Degen AA. Energy cost of ectoparasitism: the flea Xenopsylla ramesis on the desert gerbil Gerbillus dasyurus. J Zool Lond. 2002; 258: 349–54. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Devevey G, Niculita-Herzel H, Biollaz F, Yvon C, Chapuisat M, Christe P. Developmental, metabolic and immunological cost of flea infestation in the common vole. Funct Ecol. 2008; 22: 1091–98. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Demas GE. Metabolic costs of mounting an antigen-stimulated immune response in adult and aged C57BL/6J mice. Am J Physiol. 1997; 273: 1631–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin LB, Scheuerlein A, Wikelski M. Immune activity elevates energy expenditure of house sparrows: a link between direct and indirect costs?. Proc R Soc Lond B. 2003; 270: 153–58. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White CR, Seymour RS. Does Basal Metabolic Rate contain a useful signal? Mammalian BMR allometry and correlation with a selection of physiological, ecological and life-history variables. Physiol Bioch Zool. 2004; 77: 929–41. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morand S, Harvey PH. Mammalian metabolism, longevity and parasite species richness. Proc R Soc Lond B. 2000; 267: 1999–2003. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Korallo N, Vinarski MV, Krasnov BR, Shenbrot GI, Mouillot D, Poulin R. Are there general rules governing parasite diversity? Small mammalian hosts and gamasid mite assemblages. Div Distr. 2007; 13: 353–60. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Preston BT, Capellini I, McNamara P, Barton RA, Nunn CL. Parasite resistance and the adaptative significance of sleep. BMC Evol Biol. 2009; 9: 1–9. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Bordes F, Morand S. Coevolution between helminth diversity and basal immune investment in mammals: cumulative effects of polyparasitism?. Parasitol Res. 2009; 106: 33–37. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Møller AP, Merino S, Brown CR, Robertson RJ. Immune defence and host sociality: a comparative study of swallows and martins. Am Nat. 2001; 152: 136–45.
   Google Scholar
• šimková A, Lafond T, Ondrackova M, Juralda P, Ottovà E, Morand S. Parasitism, life history traits and immune defence in cyprinid fish from Central Europe. BMC Evol Biol. 2008; 8: 1–11. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Neuhaus P. Parasite removal and its impact on litter size and body condition in Columbian ground squirrels (Spermophilus columbianus). Biol Lett. 2003; 270: 213–15.
   Google Scholar
• Knowles SCL, Palinauskas V, Sheldon BC. Chronic malaria infections increase family inequalities and reduce parental fitness: experimental evidence from a wild bird population. J Evol Biol. 2009; 29: 57–569.
   Google Scholar
• Arrierero E, Møller A. Host ecology and life history traits associated with blood parasite species richness in birds. J Evol Biol. 2008; 21: 1504–13. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor WA, Boomker J, Krecek RC, Skinner JD, Watermeyer R. Helminths in sympatric populations of mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) and gray Rhebok (Pelea capreolus) in South Africa. J Parasitol. 2005; 91: 863–70. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick AM, Altizer S. Disease Ecology. Nature Education Knowledge. 2010; 1: 13.
   Google Scholar
• Lloyd-Smith JO, Schreiber SJ, Kopp PE. Getz WM. Super- spreading and the effect of individual variation on disease emergence. Nature. 2005; 438: 355. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li YG, Yu ITS, Xu PC, Lee JHW, Wong TW, Ooi PL, et al.. Predicting super spreading events during the 2003 severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemics in Hong Kong and Singapore. Am J Epidemiol. 2004; 160: 719–28. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrari N, Cattadori IM, Nespereira J, Rizzoli A, Hudson P. The role of host sex in parasite dynamics: field experiments on the yellow- necked mouse Apodemus flavicollis. Ecol Let. 2004; 7: 88–94. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Keesing F, Belden LK, Daszak P, Dobson A, Harvell CD, Holt RD, et al.. Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature. 2010; 468: 647–52. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Råberg L, Graham AL, Read AF. Decomposing health: tolerance and resistance to parasites in animals. Phil Trans Roy Soc Lond B. 2009; 364: 37–49. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Råberg L, Sim D, Read AF. Disentangling genetic variation for resistance and tolerance to infectious diseases in animals. Science. 2007; 318: 812–14. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura S, Yang C-S, Sakon N, Ueda M, Tougan T, Yamashita A, Goto N, Takahashi K, Yasunaga T, Ikuta K, Mizutani T, Okamoto Y, Tagami M, Morita M, Maeda N, Kawai J, Hayashizaki Y, Nagai Y, Horii T, Iida T, Nakaya T. Direct metagenomic detection of viral pathogens in nasal and fecal specimens using an unbiased high-throughput sequencing approach. PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e4219. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Morand S, Poulin R. Density, body mass and parasite species richness of terrestrial mammals. Evol Ecol. 1998; 12: 717–27. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arneberg P. Host population density and body mass as determinants of species richness in parasite communities: comparative analyses of directly transmitted nematodes of mammals. Ecography. 2002; 25: 88–94. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Stanko M, Miklisová D, Goüy de Bellocq J, Morand S. Mammal density and patterns of ectoparasite species richness and abundance. Oecologia. 2002; 131: 289–95. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres J, Miquel J, Casanova JC, Ribas A, Feliu C, Morand S. Parasite species richness of Iberian carnivores: influences of host density and range distribution. Biodiv Cons. 2006; 15: 4619–32. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar
• Lindenfors P, Nunn CL, Jones KE, Cunningham AA, Sechrest W, Gittleman JL. Parasite species richness in carnivores: effects of host body mass, latitude, geographical range and population density. Glob Ecol Biogeo. 2007; 1: 1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Feliu C, Renaud F, Catzeflis F, Durand P, Hugot J-P, Morand S. A comparative analysis of parasite species richness of Iberian rodents. Parasitology. 1997; 115: 453–66. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasnov BR, Shenbrot GI, Khokhlova I, Degen AA. Flea species richness and parameters of host body, host geography and host ‘milieu’. J Anim Ecol. 2004; 73: 1121–28. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohm J, Grahn M, Langefors Å Andersen Ø Storset A, von Schantz T. Experimental evidence for major histocompatibility complex allele-specific resistance to a bacterial infection. Proc R Soc Lond B. 2002; 269: 2029–33. 10.3402/iee.v1i0.7346.
   Google Scholar