The barrier layer of the Atlantic warmpool: formation mechanism and influence on the mean climate

References

• Antonov, J. I, Seidov, D, Boyer, T. P, Locarnini, R. A, Mishonov, A. V and co-authors. 2010. In: World Ocean Atlas 2009, Volume 2: Salinity. (S. Levitus) Vol. 69, 184 pp. NOAA Atlas NESDIS. US Government Printing Office: WashingtonDC.
   Google Scholar
• Blanke, B, Arhan, M, Lazar, A, Mignot, J and Prévost, G. 2002. A Lagrangian numerical investigation of the origins and fates of the salinity maximum water in the Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res. 107(C10), 3163. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Breugem W.-P. Chang P. Jang C. J. Mignot J. Hazeleger W. Barrier layers and tropical Atlantic SST biases in coupled GCMs. Tellus A. 2008; 60: 885–897. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Carton J. A. Zhou Z. Annual cycle of sea surface temperature in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 1997; 102: 27813–27824. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Chang P. Fang Y. Saravanan R. Ji L. Seidel H. The cause of the fragile relationship between the Pacific El Niño and the Atlantic Niño. Nature. 2006; 443: 324–328. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Chang P. Ji L. Li H. A decadal climate variation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean from thermodynamic air-sea interactions. Nature. 1997; 385: 516–518. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, W. D, Bitz, C. M, Blackmon, M. L, Bonan, G. B, Bretherton, C. S and co-authors. 2006. The Community Climate System Model: CCSM3. J. Clim. 19, 2122–2143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boyer Montégut, C, Mignot, J, Lazar, A and Cravatte, S. 2007. Control of salinity on the mixed layer depth in the world ocean. Part 1: general description. J. Geophys. Res. 112, C06011. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Denman K. L. A time dependent model of the upper ocean. J. Phys. Ocean. 1973; 3: 173–184.
   Google Scholar
• DeWitt, D. G. 2005. Diagnosis of the tropical Atlantic near-equatorial SST bias in a directly coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L01703. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Dickinson, R. E, Oleson, K. W, Bonan, G, Hoffman, F, Thornton, P and co-authors. 2006. The Community Land Model and its climate statistics as a component of the Community Climate System Model. J. Clim. 19, 2302–2324.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorman C. E. Bourke H. Precipitation over the Atlantic Ocean, 30 S to 70 N. Mon. Weather Rev. 1981; 109: 554–563.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emanuel K. A. Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years. Nature. 2005; 25: 686–688. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Ffield A. Amazon and Orinoco River plumes and NBC rings: bystanders or participants in hurricane events?. J. Clim. 2007; 20: 316–333. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Foltz G. R. McPhaden M. J. Seasonal mixed layer salinity balance of the tropical North Atlantic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 2008; 113: C02013.10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foltz G. R. McPhaden M. J. Impact of barrier layer thickness on SST in the central tropical North Atlantic. J. Clim. 2009; 22: 285–299. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godfrey J. S. Lindstrom E. J. The heat budget of the equatorial western pacific surface mixed layer. J. Geophys. Res. 1989; 94(C6): 8007–8017. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazeleger W. Haarsma R.J. Sensitivity of tropical Atlantic climate to mixing in a coupled ocean-atmospheremodel. Clim. Dynam. 2005; 25: 387–399.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellweger F.L. Gordon A.L. STracing Amazon river water into the Caribbean Sea. Deep-Sea Res. II. 2002; 60: 537–549. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Hu C. Montgomery E. T, Schmitt R. W. Muller-Karger F. E. Dispersal of Amazon and Orinoco River water in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean Sea: observation from space and S-PALACE floats. Clim. Dynam. 1997; 51: 1151–1171.
   Google Scholar
• Huang B. Hu Z.-Z. Jha B. Evolution of model systematic errors in the Tropical Atlantic Basin from coupled climate hindcasts. Tellus. 2007; 28: 661–682. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Kraus E. B. Turner J. S. A one-dimensional model of the seasonal thermocline II. Rev. Geophys. 1967; 19: 98–106. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Large W. G. McWilliams J. C. Doney S. C. Oceanic vertical mixing: a review and a model with a non-local boundary layer. 1994; 385: 363–403. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Locarnini, R. A, Mishonov, A. V, Antonov, J. I, Boyer, T. P, Garcia, H. E and co-authors. 2010. In: World Ocean Atlas 2009, Volume 1: Temperature. (S. Levitus) Vol. 68, 184 pp. NOAA Atlas NESDIS. US Government Printing Office: WashingtonDC.
   Google Scholar
• Lukas R. Lindstrom E. J. The mixed layer of the Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1991; 96(C6): 3343–3358.
   Google Scholar
• Maes, C, Ando, K, Delcroix, T, Kessler, W. S, McPhaden, M. J and co-authors. 2006. Observed correlation of surface salinity, temperature and barrier layer at the eastern edge of the Western Pacific warm pool. 33, L06601. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Maes, C, Picaut, J and Belamari, S. 2002. Salinity barrier layer and onset of El Niño in a coupled model. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 2206. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Masson S. Delecluse P. Influence of the Amazon river runoff on the tropical Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res. 2001; 26: 137–142. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Mignot, J, de Boyer Montégut, C, Lazar, A and Cravatte, S. 2007. Control of salinity on the mixed layer depth in the world ocean. Part II: tropical areas. J. Phys. Ocean. 112, C10010. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Miller J. R. The salinity effect in a mixed layer ocean model. J. Clim. 1976; 6: 29–35.
   Google Scholar
• Moisan J. R. Niiler P. P. Interaction between tropical Atlantic variability and El Niño-Southern Oscillation. J. Clim. 1998; 13: 2177–2194.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlmann J. C. Ocean radiant heating in climate models. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2003; 25: 686–688.
   Google Scholar
• Pailler K. Bourles B. Gouriou Y. The barrier layer in the western tropical Atlantic Ocean. Clim. Dynam. 1999; 26: 2069–2072. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Richter I. Xie S.-P. On the origin of equatorial Atlantic biases in coupled general circulation models. J. Clim. 2008; 31: 587–598. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Saravanan R. Chang P. Interaction between tropical Atlantic variability and El Niño-Southern Oscillation. J. Phys. Ocean. 2000; 13: 2177–2194.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt R. W. Bogdena P. S. Dorman C. E. Evaporation minus precipitation and density fluxes for the North Atlantic. J. Clim . 1989; 19: 1208–1221.
   Google Scholar
• Smith T. M. Reynolds R. W. Improved extended reconstruction of SST (1854–1997). J. Geophys. Res. 2004; 17: 2466–2477.
   Google Scholar
• Sprintall J. Tomczak M. Evidence of the barrier layer in the surface layer of the tropics. J. Geophys. Res. 1992; 97: 7305–7316. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vizy, E and Cook, K. 2009. Influence of the Amazon/Orinoco plume on the summertime Atlantic climate. Bull. Am. Meteor. Soc. 115, D21112. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar
• Xie S.-P. Arkin P. A. Global precipitation: a 17-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs. Tellus A. 1997; 78: 2539–2558.
   Google Scholar
• Xie S.-P. Philander S. G. H. A coupled ocean-atmosphere model of relevance to the ITCZ in the eastern Pacific. J. Mar. Res. 1994; 46: 340–350. 10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.18162.
   Google Scholar