Implications for models and measurements of chemical inhomogeneities among cloud droplets

References

• Alheit, R. R., Flossmann, A. I. and Pruppacher, H. R. 1990. A theoretical study of the wet removal of atmospheric pollutants. Part IV: The uptake and redistribution of aerosol particles through nucleation and impaction scavenging by growing cloud drops and ice particles. J. Atmos. Sci. 47, 870–887.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almeida, F. C. 1976. The collisional problem of cloud droplets moving in a turbulent environment. Part I: A method of solution. J. Atmos. Sci. 33, 1571–1578.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreae, M. O., Charlson, R. J., Bruynseels, F., Storms, H., Van Grieken, R. and Maenhaut, W. 1986. Internal mixture of sea salt, silicates, and excess sulfate in marine aerosols. Science 232, 1620–1623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Austin, P. H., Baker, M. B., Blyth, A. M. and Jensen, J. B. 1985. Small-scale variability in warm continental cumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. 42, 1123–1138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayers, G. P. and Larson, T. V. 1990. Numerical study of droplet size dependent chemistry in oceanic, winter-time stratus cloud at southern midlatitudes. J. Atmos. Chem. 11, 143–167.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, M. B., Breidenthal, R. E., Choularton, T. W. and Latham, J. 1984. The effects of turbulent mixing in clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. 4/, 299–304.
   Google Scholar
• Berry, E. X. and Reinhardt, R. L. 1974a. An analysis of cloud drop growth by collection: Part I. Double distributions. J. Atmos. Sci. 31, 1814–1824
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, E. X. and Reinhardt, R. L. 1974b. An analysis of cloud drop growth by collection: Part II. Single initial distributions. J. Atmos. Sci. 31, 1825–1831.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigg, E. K. 1986. Discrepancy between observation and prediction of concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei. Atmos. Res. 20, 82–86.
   Google Scholar
• Bower, K. N., Hill, T. A., Coe, H. and Choularton, T. W. 1991. SO2 oxidation in an entraining cloud model with explicit microphysics. Atmos. Environ. 25, 2401–2418.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chameides, W. L. 1984. The photochemistry of a remote marine stratiform cloud. J. Geophys. Res. 90, 4739–4755.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, J. S., Brost, R. A., Isaksen, I. S. A., Madronich, S., Middleton, P., Stockwell, W. R. and Walcek, C. J. 1987. A three-dimensional eulerian acid deposition model: Physical concepts and formulation. J. Geophys. Res. 92, 14681–14700.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charlson, R. J., Twohy, C. H. and Quinn, P. K. 1988. Physical influences of altitude on the chemical properties of clouds and of water deposited from the troposphere. In: Acid deposition at high elevation sites (eds. M. H. Unsworth and D. Fowler). Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 109–124.
   Google Scholar
• Charlson, R. J., Vong, R. and Hegg, D. A. 1983. The sources of sulfate in precipitation 2. Sensitivities to chemical variables. J. Geophys. Res. 88, 1375–1377.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaumerliac, N., Richard, E., Pinty, J.-P. and Nickerson, E. 1987. Sulfur scavenging in a mesoscale model with quasi-spectral microphysics: Two-dimensional results for continental and maritime clouds. J. Geophys. Res. 92D, 3114–3126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curry, J. A. 1986. Interactions among turbulence, radiation and microphysics in arctic stratus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 90–106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easter, R. C. and Hobbs, P. V. 1974. The formation of sulfates and the enhancement of cloud condensation nuclei in clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. 3/, 1586-1594.
   Google Scholar
• Einlayson-Pitts, B. J. and Pitts, J. N., Jr. 1986. Atmospheric chemistry: Fundamentals and experimen-tal techniques. Wiley, New York: 1098 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher, N. H. 1962. The physics of rainclouds. Cambridge University Press, 386 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Flossmann, A. I., Hall, W. D. and Pruppacher, H. R. 1985. A theoretical study of the wet removal of atmospheric pollutants. Part I: The redistribution of aerosol particles captured through nucleation and impaction scavenging by growing cloud drops. J. Atmos. Sci. 42, 583–606.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flossmann, A. I. 1991. The scavenging of two different types of marine aerosol particles calculated using a two-dimensional detailed cloud model. Tellus 43B, 301–321.
   Google Scholar
• Friedlander, S. K. 1977. Smoke, dust and haze, fundamentals of aerosol behavior. John Wiley & Sons, New York: 317 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs, N. A. 1964. The mechanics of aerosols. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 408 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Hales, J. M. 1989. A generalized multidimensional model for precipitation scavenging and atmospheric chemistry. Atmos. Environ. 23, 2017–2031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hass, H., Memmesheimer, M., Geiss, H., Jakobs, H. J., Laube, M. and Ebel, A. 1990. Simulation of the Chernobyl radioactive cloud over Europe using the Eurad Model. Atmos. Environ. 24A, 673–692.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegg, D. A. 1983. The sources of sulfate in precipitation 1. Parameterization scheme and physical sensitivities. J. Geophys. Res. 88, 1369–1374.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegg, D. A. and Hobbs, P. V. 1979. The homogeneous oxidation of sulfur dioxide in cloud droplets. Atmos. Environ. 13, 981–987.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegg, D. A. and Larson, T. V. 1990. The effects of microphysical parameterization on model predictions of sulfate production in clouds. Tellus 42B, 272–284.
   Google Scholar
• Heintzenberg, J. 1989. Fine particles in the global troposphere. Tellus 41B, 149–160.
   Google Scholar
• Heintzenberg, J., Ogren, J. A., Noone, K. J. and Gärdneus, L. 1989. The size distribution of submicro-meter particles within and about stratocumulus cloud droplets on Mt. Areskutan, Sweden. Atmos. Res. 24, 89–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, T. A. 1986. The role of entrainment in sulphate production in cumulus clouds. WMO Conference on Air Pollution and its Application. Leningrad, USSR.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, M. R. and Calvert, J. G. 1985. Chemical trans-formation modules for Eulerian acid deposition models. Vol. II. The aqueous-phase chemistry. National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.
   Google Scholar
• Howell, W. E. 1949. The growth of cloud drops in uniformly cooled air. J. Meteor. 15, 1999–2009.
   Google Scholar
• Hudson, J. G. and Rodgers, C. F. 1986. Relationship between critical supersaturation and cloud droplet size: Implications for cloud mixing processes. J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 2341–2359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, D. J., Waldman, J. M., Munger, J. W. and Hoffman, M. R. 1986. The H2SO4-HNO3-NH3 system at high humidities and in fogs, I + II. J. Geophys. Res. 91C, 1073–1096.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, J. B., Austin, P. H., Baker, M. B. and Blyth, A. M. 1985. Turbulent mixing, spectral evolution and dynamics in a warm cumulus cloud. J. Atmos. Sci. 42, 173–192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, J. B. and Charlson, R. J. 1984. On the efficiency of nucleation scavenging. Tellus 36B, 367–375.
   Google Scholar
• Köhler, H. 1923. Zur Kondensations des Wasserdampfes in der Atmosphaere. Geophysiske Publikasjoner pp. 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Lannefors, H., Heintzenberg, J. and Hansson, H.-C. 1983. A comprehensive study of physical and chemical parameters of the Arctic summer aerosol; results from the Swedish expedition Ymer-80. Tellus 35B, 40–54.
   Google Scholar
• Leaitch, W. R., Strapp, J. W., Isaac, G. A. and Hudson, J. G. 1986. Cloud droplet nucleation and cloud scavenging of aerosol sulphate in polluted atmo-spheres. Tellus 38B, 328–344.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, I.-Y. and Pruppacher, H. R. 1977. A comparative study on the growth of cloud drops by condensation using an air parcel model with and without entrainment. Pageoph 115, 523–545.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lelieveld, J. and Crutzen, P. J. 1990. Influences of cloud photochemical processes on tropospheric ozone. Nature 343, 227–233.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, L. R. 1984. Kinetic studies of sulfite oxidation in aqueous solution. In: SO2, NO, NO2 oxidation mechanisms: atmospheric considerations (ed. J. G. Calvert). Boston: Butterworth, pp. 63–100.
   Google Scholar
• Munger, J. W., Collett, J., Daube, B. and Hoffman, M. R. 1989. Chemical composition of coastal stratus clouds: Dependence on droplet size and distance from the coast. Atmos. Environ. 23, 2305–2320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls, S. and Turton, J. D. 1986. An observational study of the structure of stratiform cloud sheets: Part II: Entrainment. Quart. J. R. Met. Soc. 112, 461–480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noone, K. J., Charlson, R. J., Covert, D. S., Ogren, J. A. and Heintzenberg, J. 1988a. Cloud droplets: solute concentration is size dependent. J. Geophys. Res. 93D, 9477–9482.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noone, K. J., Charlson, R. J., Covert, D. S., Ogren, J. A. and Heintzenberg, J. 1988b. Design and calibration of a counterflow virtual impactor for sampling of atmospheric fog and cloud droplets. Aerosol Sci. Tech. 8, 235–244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogren, J. A., Heintzenberg, J. and Charlson, R. J. 1985. Insitu sampling of clouds with a droplet to aerosol converter. Geophys. Res. Lett. 12, 121–124.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogren, J. A., Heintzenberg, J., Zuber, A., Noone, K. J. and Charlson, R. J. 1989. Measurements of the size-dependence of non-volatile aqueous mass concentrations in cloud droplets. Tellus 41B, 24–31.
   Google Scholar
• Paluch, I. R. and Baumgardner, D. G. 1989. Entrainment and fine-scale mixing in continental convective clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. 46, 261–278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn, P. K., Charlson, R. J. and Bates, T. S. 1988. Simultaneous observations of ammonia in the atmo-sphere and ocean. Nature 335, 336–338.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schell, D. and Georgii, H.-W. 1989. Design and operation of a two-stage fogwater collector. In: Mechanisms and effects of pollutant-transfer into forests (ed. H.-W. Georgii). Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 221–229.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, S. E. 1987. Both Sides Now: The Chemistry of Clouds. Ann. N. Y. Acad. of Sci. 502, 83–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Telford, J. W. and Chai, S. K. 1980. A new aspect of condensation theory. Pageoph 118, 720–742.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ten Brink, H. M., Schwartz, S. E. and Daum, P. H. 1987. Efficient scavenging of aerosol sulfate by liquid-water clouds. Atmos. Environ. 21, 2035–2052
   Google Scholar
• Twohy, C. H., Austin, P. H. and Charlson, R. J. 1989. Chemical consequences of the initial diffusional growth of cloud droplets: a clean marine case. Tellus 41B, 51–60.
   Google Scholar
• Whitby, K. T. 1978. The physical characteristics of sulfur aerosols. Atmos. Environ. 12, 135–159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar