Carbon dioxide variations in the stratosphere over Japan, Scandinavia and Antarctica

References

• Allen, M., Yung, Y. L. and Waters, J. W. 1981. Vertical trans-port and photochemistry in the terrestrial mesosphere and lower thermosphere (50-120 km). J. Geophys. Res. 86, 3617–3627.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allison, C. E., Francy, R. J. and Meijer, H. A. J. 1995. Rec-ommendations for the reporting of stable isotope measure-ments of carbon and oxygen in CO2 gas. In: References and intercomparison materials for stable isotopes of light elements, Int. Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. 155–162
   Google Scholar
• Andrews, A. E., Boering, K. A., Daube, B. C., Wofsy, S. C., Hintsa, E. J., Weinstock, E. M. and Bui, T. P. 1999. Em-pirical age spectra for the lower tropical stratosphere from in situ observations of CO2: Imprications for stratospheric transport. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 26581–26595.
   Google Scholar
• Andrews, A. E., Boering, K. A., Daube, B. C., Wofsy, S. C., Loewenstein, M., Jost, H., Podorske, J. R., Webster, C. R., Herman, R. L., Scott, D. C., Flesch, G. J., Moyer, E. J Elkins, J. W., Dutton, G. S., Hurst, D. E, Moore, FL., Ray, E. A., Romashkin, P. A. and Strahan, S. E., 2001a. Mean age of stratospheric air derived from in situ observations of CO2, Cat, and N20. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 32295–32314.
   Google Scholar
• Andrews, A. E., Boering, K. A., Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B. C., Jones, D. B., Alex, S., Loewenstein, M., Podorske, J. R. and Strahan, S. E. 2001b. Empirical age spectra for the midlatitude lower stratosphere from in situ observa-tions of CO2: Quantitative evidence for a subtropical “bar-rier” to horizontal transport. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 10257-10 274.
   Google Scholar
• Bacmeister, J. T., Sislcind, D. E. and Summers, M. E. 1998. Age of air in a zonally averaged two-dimensional model. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 11 263-11 288.
   Google Scholar
• Barth, V. and Zahn, A. 1997. Oxygen isotope composition of carbon dioxide in the middle atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 12995–13007.
   Google Scholar
• Bischof, W., Borchers, R., Fabian, P. and Kruger, B. C. 1985. Increased concentration and vertical distribution of carbon dioxide in the stratosphere. Nature 316, 708–710.
   Google Scholar
• Boering, K. A., Daube, Jr. B. C., Wofsy, S. C., Loewenstein, M., Podolske, J. R. and Keim, E. R. 1994. Tracer-tracer relationships and lower stratospheric dynamics: CO2 and N20 correlations during SPADE. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 2567–2570.
   Google Scholar
• Boering, K. A., Wofsy, S. C., Daube, Jr. B. C., Schneider, H. R., Loewenstein, M., Podolske, J. R. and Conway, T. J. 1996. Stratospheric mean ages and transport rates from observations of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. Science 274, 1340–1343.
   Google Scholar
• Conway, T. J., Tans, P. P., Waterman, L. S., Thoning, K. W., Kitzis, D. R.,Masarie, K. A. and Zhang, N. 1994. Evidence for interannual variability of the carbon cycle from the Na-tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory global air sam-pling network. J. Geophys. Res. 99, 22831–22855.
   Google Scholar
• Fleming, E. L., Jackman, C. H., Stolarski, R. S. and Con-sidine, D. B. 1999. Simulation of stratospheric tracers us-ing an improved empirically based two-dimensional model transport formulation. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 23911–23934.
   Google Scholar
• Franey, R. J., Tans, P. P., Allison, C. E., Enting, I. G., White, J. W. C. and Trolier, M. 1995. Changes in oceanic and terrestrial carbon uptake since 1982. Nature 373,326–330.
   Google Scholar
• Friedli, H. and Siegenthaler, U. 1988. Influence of N20 on isotope analyses in CO2 and mass-spectrometric determi-nation of N20 in air samples. Tellus 40B, 129–133.
   Google Scholar
• Gamo, T., Tsutsumi, M., Sakai, H., Nakazawa, T., Tanaka, M., Honda, H., Kubo, H. and Itoh, T. 1989. Carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios of carbon dioxide a stratospheric profile over Japan. Tellus 41B, 127–133.
   Google Scholar
• Gamo, T., Tsutsumi, M., Sakai, H., Nakazawa, T., Machida, T., Honda H. and Itoh, T. 1995. Long-term monitoring of carbon and oxygen isotope ratios of stratospheric CO2 over Japan. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 397–400.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, TM. and Prather, M. J. 1993. Simulations of the trend and annula cycle in stratospheric CO2. J. Geophys. Res. 98, 10573–10581.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, T. M., Waugh, D. W., Boering, K. A. and Plumb, R. A. 1999. Evaluation of transport in stratospheric models. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 18815–18839.
   Google Scholar
• Harnish, J., Bishof, W., Borchers, R., Fabian, P. and Maiss, M., 1998. A stratospheric excess of CO2 - due to tropical deep convection? Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 63–66.
   Google Scholar
• Holton, J. R., Haynes, P. H., McIntyre, M. E., Douglas, A. R., Rood, R. B. and Pfister, L. 1995. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange. Rev. Geophys. 33,405–439.
   Google Scholar
• Honda, H., Aoki, S., Nakazawa, T., Morimoto, S. and Yajima, N. 1996. Cryogenic air sampling system for measurements of the concentrations of stratospheric trace gases and their isotopic ratios over Antarctica. J. Geomag. Geoelectr. 48, 1145–1155.
   Google Scholar
• Johnston, J. C., Riiclunann, T. and Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M. 2000. CO2 ± 0(1D) isotopic exchange: laboratory and modeling studies. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 15213–15229.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, D. B. A., Andrews, A. E., Schneider, H. R. and McEl-roy, M. B. 2001. Constraints on meridional transport in the stratosphere imposed by the mean age of air in the lower stratosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 10243–10256.
   Google Scholar
• Keeling, C. D., Whorf, T. P., Wahlen, M. and van der Plicht, J. 1995. Interannual extremes in the rate of rise of atmo-spheric carbon dioxide since 1980. Nature 375, 666–670.
   Google Scholar
• Morimoto, S., Nakazawa, T., Higuchi, K. and Aoki, S. 2000. Latitudinal distribution of atmospheric CO2 sources and sinks inferred by 313C measurements from 1985 to 1991. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 24315-24 326.
   Google Scholar
• Nakazawa, T., Aoki, S., Murayama, S., Fulcabori, M., Ya-manouchi, T., Murayama, H., Shiobara, M., Hashida, G., Kawaguchi, S. and Tanaka, M. 1991a. The concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide at the Japanese Antarctic Station, Syowa. Tellus 43B, 126–135.
   Google Scholar
• Nakazawa, T., Miyashita, K., Aoki, S. and Tanaka, M. 199 lb. Temporal and spatial variations of upper tropospheric and lower stratospheric carbon dioxide. Tellus 43B, 106–117.
   Google Scholar
• Nakazawa, T., Morimoto, S., Aoki, S. and Tanaka, M. 1993. Time and space variations of the carbon isotopic ratio of tropospheric carbon dioxide over Japan. Tellus 45B, 258–274.
   Google Scholar
• Nakazawa, T., Machida, T., Sugawara, S., Murayama, S., Mo-rimoto, S., Hashida, G., Honda, H. and Itoh, T. 1995. Mea-surements of the stratospheric carbon dioxide concentra-tion over Japan using a balloon-borne cryogenic sampler. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 1229–1232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakazawa, T., Morimoto, S., Aoki, S. and Tanaka, M. 1997a. Temporal and spatial variations of the carbon isotopic ra-tio of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the western Pacific region. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 1271–1285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakazawa, T., Murayama, S., Toi, M., Ishizawa, M., Otonashi, K., Aoki, S. and Yamamoto, S. 1997b. Tem-poral variations of the CO2 concentration and its carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios in a temperate forest in the cen-tral part of the main island of Japan. Tellus 49B, 364–381.
   Google Scholar
• Ray, E. A., Moore, F. L., Elkins, J. W., Dutton, G. S., Fahey, D. W., Viimel, H., Oltmans, S. J and Rosenlof, K. H. 1999. Transport into the northern hemisphere lowermost stratosphere revealld by in situ tracer measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 26565–26580.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, U. and Khedim, A. 1991. In situ measurements of carbon dioxide in the winter arctic vortex and at mid-latitudes: an indicator of the age of stratospheric air. Geo-phys. Res. Lett. 18, 763–766.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strunk, M., Engel, A., Schmidt, U., Volk, C. M. and Wetter, T. 2000. CO2 and SF6 as stratospheric age tracers: con-sistency and the effect of mesospheric 5F6-loss. Geophys. Res. Lett. 27, 341–344.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugawara, S., Nakazawa, T., Shiralcawa, Y., Kawamura, K., Aoki, S., Machida, T. and Honda, H. 1997. Vertical profile of the carbon isotopic ratio of stratospheric methane over Japan. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24, 2989–2992.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka, M., Nakazawa, T. and Aoki, S. 1983. High quality measurements of the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. 61, 678–685.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka, M., Nalcazawa, T., Shiobara, M., Ohshima, H., Aoki, S., Kawaguchi S. and Yamanouchi, T. 1987. Variations of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration at Syowa Sta-tion (69°00'S, 39°35'E), Antarctica. Tellus 39B, 72–79.
   Google Scholar
• Thiemens, M. H. 1999. Mass-independent isotope effects in planetary atmospheres and the early solar system. Science 283, 341–345.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiemens, M. H., Jackson, T., Mauersberger, K., Schueler, B. and Morton, J. 1991. Oxygen isotope fractionation in stratospheric CO2. Geophys. Res. Lett. 18, 669–672.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiemens, M. H., Jackson, T. L. and Brenninlcmeijer, C. A. M. 1995a. Observation of a mass independent oxygen iso-topic composition in terrestrial stratospheric CO2, the link to ozone chemistry, and the possible occurrence in the Mar-tian atmosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 255–257.
   Google Scholar
• Thiemens, M. H., Jackson, T., Zipf, E. C., Erdman, P. W. and van Egmond C. 1995b. Carbon dioxide and oxygen iso-tope anomalies in the mesosphere and stratosphere. Sci-ence 270, 969–972.
   Google Scholar
• Wen, J. and Thiemens, M. H. 1993. Multi-isotope study of the 0(1D) ± CO2 exchange and stratospheric consequences. J. Geophys. Res. 98, 12801–12808.
   Google Scholar
• Yung, Y. L., DeMore, W. B. and Pinto, J. P. 1991. Isotope exchange between carbon dioxide and ozone via 0(1D) in the stratosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 18, 13–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yung, Y. L., Lee, A. Y. T., Irion, F. W., DeMore, W. B. and Wen, J. 1997. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: Isotopic exchange with ozone and its use as a tracer in the middle atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 10857–10866.
   Google Scholar