Pain Management in Primary Care: Strategies to Mitigate Opioid Misuse, Abuse, and Diversion

References

• . The Mayday Fund Special Committee on Pain and the Practice of Medicine. A call to revolutionize chronic pain care in America: an opportunity in health care reform. http://www.maydaypainreport.org/report.php. Accessed January 6, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . American Pain Foundation. Pain facts and figures. http://www.painfoundation.org/media/resources/pain-facts-figures.html. Accessed January 6, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . Dubois MY, Gallagher RM, Lippe PM. Pain medicine position paper. Pain Med. 2009;10(6):972–1000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Khouzam RH. Chronic pain and its management in primary care. South Med J. 2000;93(10):946–952
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . McCarberg B. Treatment of mild-to-moderate acute pain: what can we do to improve the standard of care? Am J Ther. 2008;15( suppl 10):S5–S6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Haanpää ML, Backonja M-M, Bennett MI, . Assessment of neuropathic pain in primary care. Am J Med. 2009;122( 10 suppl):S13–S21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Mäntyselkä P, Kumpusalo E, Ahonen R, . Pain as a reason to visit the doctor: a study in Finnish primary health care. Pain. 2001;89(2–3):175–180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . McCarberg BH, Adler JA. Updates on managing acute and chronic pain in primary care practice: optimizing pain reduction, minimizing adverse events. JAAPA. 2008;Suppl Pain:1–13
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Johannes CB, Le TK, Zhou X, Johnston JA, Dworkin RH. The prevalence of chronic pain in United States adults: results of an Internet-based survey. J Pain. 2010;11(11):1230–1239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Massachusetts Pain Initiative. Massachusetts Pain Initiative. Pain Survey Executive Summary. http://masspaininitiative.org/files/MassPI%20Pain%20Survey%20-%20Executive%20Summary%20v3.pdf. Accessed January 6, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . Trescot AM, Boswell MV, Atluri SL, . Opioid guidelines in the management of chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician. 2006;9(1):1–39
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . D'Arcy Y, McCarberg B. Field guide to pain. Part 2: developing a plan of care. Nurse Pract. 2005;30(10):60–62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . McCarberg B, Stanos S. Key patient assessment tools and treatment strategies for pain management. Pain Pract. 2008;8(6):423–432
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Gallagher RM, Rosenthal LJ. Chronic pain and opiates: balancing pain control and risks in long-term opioid treatment. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89(3 suppl 1):S77–S82
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . McLean SA, Clauw DJ, Abelson JL, Liberzon I. The development of persistent pain and psychological morbidity after motor vehicle collision: integrating the potential role of stress response systems into a biopsychosocial model. Psychosom Med. 2005;67(5):783–790
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Katz NP, Adams EH, Chilcoat H, . Challenges in the development of prescription opioid abuse-deterrent formulations. Clin J Pain. 2007;23(8):648–660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kuehn BM. Opioid prescriptions soar: increase in legitimate use as well as abuse. JAMA. 2007;297(3):249–251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Paulozzi LJ, Budnitz DS, Xi Y. Increasing deaths from opioid analgesics in the United States. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2006;15(9):618–627
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Touchet BK, Yates WR, Coon KA. Opioid contract use is associated with physician training level and practice specialty. J Opioid Manag. 2005;1(4):195–200
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Gagnon AM, Kahan M, Srivastava A. Opioid use and abuse: is there a problem? Clin J Pain. 2007;23(8):661–662
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Governale L. Outpatient prescription opioid utilization in the US, years 2000–2009. US Food and Drug Administration. 2010. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/Drugs/DrugSafetyandRiskManagementAdvisoryCommittee/UCM220950.pdf. Accessed January 6, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . Ashburn MA, Lipman AG. Pain in society. In: Lipman AG, ed. Pain Management for Primary Care Clinicians. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists; 2004
   Google Scholar
• . Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, ; American Pain Society-American Academy of Pain Medicine Opioids Guidelines Panel. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009;10(2):113–130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Katz NP, Adams EH, Benneyan JC, . Foundations of opioid risk management. Clin J Pain. 2007;23(2):103–118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rich BA, Fine PG. Ethical and legal issues in pain management. In: Lipman AG, ed. Pain Management for Primary Care Clinicians. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists; 2004; 281–300
   Google Scholar
• . Stewart WF, Ricci JA, Chee E, Morganstein D, Lipton R. Lost productive time and cost due to common pain conditions in the US workforce. JAMA. 2003;290(18):2443–2454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Soin A, Cheng J, Brown L, Moufawad S, Mekhail N. Functional outcomes in patients with chronic nonmalignant pain on long-term opioid therapy. Pain Pract. 2008;8(5):379–384
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . McCarberg B. Contemporary management of chronic pain disorders. J Fam Pract. 2004;53( 10 suppl):S11–S22
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Chou R. 2009 Clinical Guidelines from the American Pain Society and the American Academy of Pain Medicine on the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain: what are the key messages for clinical practice? Pol Arch Med Wewn. 2009;119(7–8):469–476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Sullivan MD, Edlund MJ, Fan MY, DeVries A, Brennan Braden J, Martin BC. Trends in use of opioids for non-cancer pain conditions 2000–2005 in commercial and Medicaid insurance plans: the TROUP study. Pain. 2008;138(2):440–449
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Olsen Y, Daumit GL, Ford DE. Opioid prescriptions by U.S. primary care physicians from 1992 to 2001. J Pain. 2006;7(4):225–235
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Brennan Braden J, Fan MY, Edlund MJ, Martin BC, DeVries A, Sullivan MD. Trends in use of opioids by non-cancer pain type 2000–2005 among Arkansas Medicaid and HealthCore enrollees: results from the TROUP study. J Pain. 2008;9(11):1026–1035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . US Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Office of Applied Studies. Results from the 2009 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Volume I. Summary of national findings. September 2010. http://oas.samhsa.gov/NSDUH/2k9NSDUH/2k9ResultsP.pdf. Accessed January 6, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . Spiller H, Lorenz DJ, Bailey EJ, Dart RC. Epidemiological trends in abuse and misuse of prescription opioids. J Addict Dis. 2009;28(2):130–136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. Under the counter: the diversion and abuse of controlled prescription drugs in the U.S. July 2005. http://www.casacolumbia.org/download.aspx?path=/UploadedFiles/tt3bl4lk.pdf. Accessed January 6, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . Watkins A. The new faces of heroin addiction: teen use on the rise. The Adolescent Substance Abuse Knowledge Base. 2009. http://www.adolescent-substance-abuse.com/substance-abuse/the-new-faces-of-heroin-addiction-teen-use-on-the-rise.htm. Accessed February 10, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . Partnership for a Drug-Free America. The Partnership Attitude Tracking Survey (PATS): Teens 2008 Report. Released February 26, 2009. http://www.doj.mt.gov/rxabuse/docs/2008PATSreport.pdf. Accessed January 6, 2011
   Google Scholar
• . Manchikanti L, Singh A. Therapeutic opioids: a ten-year perspective on the complexities and complications of the escalating use, abuse, and nonmedical use of opioids. Pain Physician. 2008;11( 2 suppl):S63–S88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . IMS Health. Full year 2008. http://www.rxlist.com/script/main/hp.asp. Accessed November 8, 2010
   Google Scholar
• . Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Kurtz SP, Cicero TJ. Mechanisms of prescription drug diversion among drug-involved club- and street-based populations. Pain Med. 2007;8(2):171–183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Adult use of prescription opioid pain medications—Utah, 2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59(6):153–157
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Wiedemer NL, Harden PS, Arndt IO, Gallagher RM. The opioid renewal clinic: a primary care, managed approach to opioid therapy in chronic pain patients at risk for substance abuse. Pain Med. 2007;8(7):573–584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kamal-Bahl SJ, Stuart BC, Beers MH. Propoxyphene use and risk for hip fractures in older adults. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2006;4(3):219–226
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Varrassi G, Marinangeli F, Piroli A, Coaccioli S, Paladini A. Strong analgesics: working towards an optimal balance between efficacy and side effects. Eur J Pain. 2010;14(4):340–342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Ballantyne JC, Shin NS. Efficacy of opioids for chronic pain: a review of the evidence. Clin J Pain. 2008;24(6):469–478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Morley-Forster PK, Clark AJ, Speechley M, Moulin DE. Attitudes toward opioid use for chronic pain: a Canadian physician survey. Pain Res Manag. 2003;8(4):189–194
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Nwokeji ED, Rascati KL, Brown CM, Eisenberg A. Influences of attitudes on family physicians' willingness to prescribe long-acting opioid analgesics for patients with chronic nonmalignant pain. Clin Ther. 2007;29( suppl):2589–2602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Ponte CD, Johnson-Tribino J. Attitudes and knowledge about pain: an assessment of West Virginia family physicians. Fam Med. 2005;37(7):477–480
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Fishbain DA, Cole B, Lewis J, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. What percentage of chronic nonmalignant pain patients exposed to chronic opioid analgesic therapy develop abuse/addiction and/or aberrant drug-related behaviors? A structured evidence-based review. Pain Med. 2008;9(4):444–459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, Miaskowski C, Passik SD, Portenoy RK. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: prediction and identification of aberrant drug-related behaviors: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society and American Academy of Pain Medicine clinical practice guideline. J Pain. 2009;10(2):131–146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Turk DC, Swanson KS, Gatchel RJ. Predicting opioid misuse by chronic pain patients: a systematic review and literature synthesis. Clin J Pain. 2008;24(6):497–508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Passik SD, Hays L, Eisner N, Kirsh KL. Psychiatric and pain characteristics of prescription drug abusers entering drug rehabilitation. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2006;20(2):5–13
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Boscarino JA, Rukstalis M, Hoffman SN, . Risk factors for drug dependence among out-patients on opioid therapy in a large US healthcare system. Addiction. 2010;105(10):1776–1782
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Wasan AD, Butler SF, Budman SH, Benoit C, Fernandez K, Jamison RN. Psychiatric history and psychologic adjustment as risk factors for aberrant drug-related behavior among patients with chronic pain. Clin J Pain. 2007;23(4):307–315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Banta-Green CJ, Merrill JO, Doyle SR, Boudreau DM, Calsyn DA. Opioid use behaviors, mental health and pain–development of a typology of chronic pain patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;104(1–2):34–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Passik SD, Kirsh KL, Casper D. Addiction-related assessment tools and pain management: instruments for screening, treatment planning, and monitoring compliance. Pain Med. 2008;9(S2):S145–S166
   Google Scholar
• . Moore TM, Jones T, Browder JH, Daffron S, Passik SD. A comparison of common screening methods for predicting aberrant drug-related behavior among patients receiving opioids for chronic pain management. Pain Med. 2009;10(8):1426–1433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Butler SF, Fernandez K, Benoit C, Budman SH, Jamison RN. Validation of the revised Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain (SOAPP-R). J Pain. 2008;9(4):360–372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Akbik H, Butler SF, Budman SH, Fernandez K, Katz NP, Jamison RN. Validation and clinical application of the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain (SOAPP). J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006;32(3):287–293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Smith HS, Kirsh KL, Passik SD. Chronic opioid therapy issues associated with opioid abuse potential. J Opioid Manag. 2009;5(5):287–300
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Fleming MF, Davis J, Passik SD. Reported lifetime aberrant drug-taking behaviors are predictive of current substance use and mental health problems in primary care patients. Pain Med. 2008;9(8):1098–1106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . D'Arcy Y, McCarberg B. Pain management: patients with a substance use disorder. Nurse Pract. 2007;32(9):36–44
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Mitra S, Sinatra RS. Perioperative management of acute pain in the opioid-dependent patient. Anesthesiology. 2004;101(1):212–227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Webster LR, Fine PG. Approaches to improve pain relief while minimizing opioid abuse liability. J Pain. 2010;11(7):602–611
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Abeles M, Solitar BM, Pillinger MH, Abeles AM. Update on fibromyalgia therapy. Am J Med. 2008;121(7):555–561
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Gourlay DL, Heit HA, Almahrezi A. Universal precautions in pain medicine: a rational approach to the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Med. 2005;6(2):107–112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Breuer B, Pappagallo M, Tai JY, Portenoy RK. U.S. board-certified pain physician practices: uniformity and census data of their locations. J Pain. 2007;8(3):244–250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Meier B. Move to restrict pain killers puts onus on doctors. New York Times. July 28, 2010: B1. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/business/29pain.html. Accessed November 8, 2010
   Google Scholar
• . Webster LR, Bath B, Medve RA. Opioid formulations in development designed to curtail abuse: who is the target? Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2009;18(3):255–263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Katz N. Abuse-deterrent opioid formulations: are they a pipe dream? Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2008;10(1):11–18
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Budman SH, Grimes Serrano JM, Butler SF. Can abuse deterrent formulations make a difference? Expectation and speculation. Harm Reduct J. 2009;68
   Google Scholar
• . Young AM, Havens JR, Leukefeld CG. Route of administration for illicit prescription opioids: a comparison of rural and urban drug users. Harm Reduct J. 2010;7(1):24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . McCabe SE, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ, Teter CJ. Motives, diversion and routes of administration associated with nonmedical use of prescription opioids. Addict Behav. 2007;32(3):562–575
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Brennan MJ, Stanos S. Strategies to optimize pain management with opioids while minimizing risk of abuse. PM R. 2010;2(6):544–558
   PubMedGoogle Scholar