Conventional and Alternative Matrices for Driving Under The Influence of Cannabis: Recent Progress and Remaining Challenges

• World Health Organization. World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention. Peden M, Scurfield R, Sleet D et al. (Eds). WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland, 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Scheers M , VerstraeteAG, AdriaensenM, RaesE, TantM. Rijden onder Invloed van Psychoactieve Stoffen: Literatuurstudie en Evaluatie van het Handhavingsbeleid. Academia Press, Ghent, Belgium1–291 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Kelly E , DarkeS, RossJ. A review of drug use and driving: epidemiology, impairment, risk factors and risk perceptions. Drug Alcohol Rev. 23, 319–344 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott S , WoolacottH, BraithwaiteR. The prevalence of drugs and alcohol found in road traffic fatalities: a comparative study of victims. Sci. Justice. 49, 19–23 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mura P , ChatelainC, DumestreVet al. Use of drugs of abuse in less than 30-year-old drivers killed in a road crash in France: a spectacular increase for cannabis, cocaine and amphetamines. Forensic Sci. Int. 160, 168–172 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones AW , HolmgrenA, KugelbergFC. Driving under the influence of cannabis: a 10-year study of age and gender differences in the concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol in blood. Addiction103, 452–461 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raes E , Van den NesteT, VerstraeteAG. Drug use, impaired driving and traffic accidents. In: EMCDDA Insights Series (No 8). Luxembourg, Luxembourg, 1–196 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Raes E , VerstraeteAG. Cannabis and driving: the situation in Europe. Ann. Pharm. Fr. 64, 197–203 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Macdonald S , Anglin-BodrugK, MannREet al. Injury risk associated with cannabis and cocaine use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 72, 99–115 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers JG , BerghausG, Van Laar M, Drummer OH. Dose related risk of motor vehicle crashes after cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 73, 109–119 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummer OH , GerostamoulosJ, BatzirisHet al. The involvement of drugs in drivers of motor vehicles killed in Australian road traffic crashes. Accid. Anal. Prev. 36, 239–248 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh JM , De Gier JJ, Christopherson AS, Verstraete AG. Drugs and driving. Traffic Injury Prevention. 5, 241–253 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asbridge M , WalshMJ, De Gier JJ, Christopherson AS, Verstraete A. Letter to the editor and reply on: ‘drugs and driving,’ traffic injury prevention. Traffic Inj. Prev. 6, 197 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parliament of Belgium. Wet tot invoering van speekseltesten op drugs in het verkeer (Loi relative à l’introduction des tests salivaires en matière de drogues dans la circulation), 31 Juillet. Belgisch Staatsblad (Moniteur Belge) (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Parliament of France. Relative à la conduite sous l’influence de substances ou plantes classes comme stupéfiants. Belgisch Staatsblad (Moniteur Belge) (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Parliament of Belgium. Wet tot wijziging van de wet betreffende de politie over het wegverkeer, gecoördineerd op 16 maart 1968 (1) (Loi modifiant la loi relative à la police de la circulation routière, coordonnée le 16 mars 1968), 16 maart (mars). Belgisch Staatsblad (Moniteur Belge) (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Ceder G . Drugged driving in Sweden-effects of new legislation concerning zero-tolerance for narcotic drugs. Proceedings of:The 15th International Confernce of Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety (ICADTS). Stockholm, Sweden, 22–26 May 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Steinmeyer S , OhrH, MaurerHJ, MoellerMR. Practical aspects of roadside tests for administrative traffic offences in Germany. Forensic Sci. Int. 121, 33–36 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maurer HH , SauerC, TheobaldDS. Toxicokinetics of drugs of abuse: current knowledge of isoenzymes involved in the human metabolism of tetrahydrocannabinol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and codeine. Ther. Drug. Monit. 28(3), 447–453 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musshoff F , MadeaB. Review of biologic matrices (urine, blood, hair) as indicators of recent or ongoing cannabis use. Ther. Drug Monit. 28(2), 155–163 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin RS , GustafsonRA, BarnesA, NebroW, MoolchanET, HuestisMA. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy-Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human plasma after controlled oral administration of cannabinoids. Ther. Drug Monit. 28(4), 545–551 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwilke EW , KarschnerEL, LoweRHet al. Intra- and inter-subject whole blood/plasma cannabinoid ratios determined by 2-dimensional, electron impact GC–MS with cryofocusing. Clin. Chem. 55(6), 1188–1195 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toennes SW , RamaekersJG, TheunissenEL, MoellerMR, KauertGF. Comparison of cannabinoid pharmacokinetic properties in occasional and heavy users smoking a marijuana or placebo joint. J. Anal. Toxicol. 32, 470–477 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore C , CoulterC, RanaS, VincentM, SoaresJ. Analytical procedure for the determination of the marijuana metabolite 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in oral fluid specimens. J. Anal. Toxicol. 30, 409–412 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day D , KuntzDJ, FeldmanM. Detection of THCA in oral fluid by GC–MS/MS. J. Anal. Toxicol. 30, 645–650 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore C , RanaS, CoulterC. Simultaneous identification of 2-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol, tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabinol and cannabidiol in oral fluid. J. Chromatogr. B. 852, 459–464 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kauert GF , RamaekersJG, SchneiderE, MoellerMR, ToennesSW. Pharmacokinetic properties of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in serum and oral fluid. J. Anal. Toxicol. 31, 288–293 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedbala RS , KardosKW, FritchDFet al. Detection of marijuana use by oral fluid and urine analysis following single-dose administration of smoked and oral marijuana. J. Anal. Toxicol. 25(5), 289–303 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis MA , ConeEJ. Relationship of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations in oral fluid and plasma after controlled administration of smoked cannabis. J. Anal. Toxicol. 28, 394–399 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummer OH . Review: pharmacokinetics of illicit drugs in oral fluid. Forensic Sci. Int. 150, 133–142 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis MA , MitchellJM, ConeEJ. Urinary excretion profiles of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans after single smoked doses of marijuana. J. Anal. Toxicol. 20, 441–452 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl SM . Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology. Cambridge University Press, NJ, USA,1–1117 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Giroud C , BollmannM, ThomasA, ManginP, FavratB. Consommation de cannabis: quells sont les risques? Ann. Toxicol. Anal. 20(4), 183–205 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Sewell RA , PolingJ, SofuogluM. The effect of cannabis compared with alcohol and driving. Am. J. Addiction. 18, 185–193 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toennes SW , KauertGF, SteinmeyerS, MoellerMR. Driving under the influence of drugs-evaluation of analytical data of drugs in oral fluid, serum and urine, and correlation with impairment symptoms. Forensic Sci. Int. 152, 149–155 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papafotiou K , CarterJD, StoughC. The relationship between performance on the standardised field sobriety tests, driving performance and the level of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in blood. Forensic Sci. Int. 155, 172–178 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers JG , MoellerMR, van Ruitenbeek P, Theunissen EL, Schneider E, Kauert G. Cognition and motor control as a function of Δ9-THC concentration in serum and oral fluid: limits of impairment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 85, 114–122 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grotenhermen F , LesonG, BerghausGet al. Developing limits for driving under cannabis. Addiction102, 1910–1917 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody DE , MontiKM, CrouchDJ. Analysis of forensic specimens for cannabinoids. II. Relationship between blood Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and blood and urine 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid concentrations. J. Anal. Toxicol. 16, 302–306 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wille SMR , RaesE, LillsundePet al. Relationship between oral fluid and blood concentrations of drugs of abuse in drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. Ther. Drug Monit. 31(4), 511–519 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toennes SW , SteinmeyerS, MaurerHJ, MoellerMR, KauertGF. Screening for drugs of abuse in oral fluid-correlation of analysis results with serum in forensic cases. J. Anal. Toxicol. 29, 22–27 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis MA , ScheidweilerKB, SaitoTet al. Excretion of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in sweat. Forensic Sci. Int. 174, 173–177 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samyn N , De Boeck G, Verstraete AG. The use of oral fluid and sweat wipes for the detection of drugs of abuse in drivers. J. Forensic Sci. 47(6), 127–134 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verstraete A , RaesE, WillekensMet al. Rosita-2 Project; Final Report . Academia Press, Gent, Belgium (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Verstraete A , LabatL. Use of onsite test for the detection of drugs in oral fluid at the roadside and at the workplace. Ann. Toxicol. Anal. 21(1), 3–8 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Pehrsson A , GunnarT, EngblomC, SeppäH, JamaA, LillsundeP. Roadside oral fluid testing: comparison of the results of Drugwipe 5 and Drugwipe benzodiazepines on-site tests with laboratory confirmation results of oral fluid and whole blood. Forensic Sci. Int. 175, 140–148 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Concheiro M , de Castro A, Quintela O, Cruz A, López-Rivadulla M. Confirmation by LC–MS of drugs in oral fluid obtained from roadside testing. Forensic Sci. Int. 170, 156–162 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laloup M , Ramirez Fernandez M, Wood M, De Boeck G, Maes V, Samyn N. Correlation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations determined by LC–MS/MS in oral fluid and plasma from impaired drivers and evaluation of the on-site Dräger DrugTest®. Forensic Sci. Int. 161, 175–179 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kintz P , BrunetB, MullerJFet al. Evaluation of the Cozart DDSV test for cannabis in oral fluid. Ther. Drug Monit. 31, 131–134 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crouch J , WalshJM, CangianelliL, QuintelaO. Laboratory evaluation and field application of roadside oral fluid collectors and drug testing devices. Ther. Drug Monit. 30, 188–195 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cirimele V , VillainM, MuraP, BernardM, KintzP. Oral fluid testing for cannabis: on-site Oraline IV s.a.t. device versus GC/MS. Forensic Sci. Int. 161, 180–184 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kintz P , BernhardW, VillainM, GasserM, AebiB, CirimeleV. Detection of cannabis use in drivers with the drugwipe device and by GC-MS after Intercept® device collection. J. Anal. Toxicol. 28, 724–727 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Moore C , RossW, CoulterCet al. Detection of the marijuana metabolite 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in oral fluid specimens and its contribution to positive results in screening assays. J. Anal. Toxicol. 30, 413–418 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wille SMR , SamynN, Ramirez-FernandezM, De Boeck G. Evaluation of on-site oral fluid screening using drugwipe-5+®, RapidSTAT® and DrugTest 5000® for the detection of drugs of abuse in drivers. Forensic. Sci. Int. (2009) (In Press).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pil K , RaesE, VerstraeteA. The toxicological challenges in the European research project DRUID. Forensic Sci. Int. Suppl. Series. 1, 29–32 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Drummer OH , GerostamoulosD, ChuM, SwannP, BoormanM, CairnsI. Drugs in oral fluid in randomly selected drivers. Forensic Sci. Int. 170, 105–110 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samyn N , LaloupM, De Boeck G. Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in oral fluid. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 388, 1437–1453 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosker WM , HuestisMA. Oral fluid testing for drugs of abuse. Clin. Chem. 55(11), 1910–1931 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maurer HH . Mass spectrometric approaches in impaired driving toxicology. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 393, 97–107 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramirez-Fernandez M , De Boeck G, Wood M, Lopez-Rivadulla M, Samyn N. Simultaneous analysis of THC and its metabolites in blood using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B. 875, 465–470 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas A , WidmerC, HopfgartnerG, StaubC. Fast gas chromatography and negative-ion chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry for forensic analysis of cannabinoids in whole blood. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 45, 495–503 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scurlock RD , OhlsonGB, WorthenDK. The detection of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-D 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCA) in whole blood using two-dimensional gas chromatography and EI-mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 30, 262–266 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teixeira H , VerstraeteA, ProençaP, Corte-RealF, MonsantoP, VieiraDN. Validated method for the simultaneous determination of Δ9-THC and Δ9-THC-COOH in oral fluid, urine and whole blood using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization. Forensic Sci. Int. 170, 148–155 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder JL , MarinettiLJ, SmithRK, BrewerWE, ClellandBL, MorganSL. The analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolite in whole blood and 11-nor- Δ9-tetrahydrocannabiol-9-carboxylic acid in urine using disposable pipette extraction with confirmation and quantification by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 32, 659–666 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jagerdeo E , SchaffJE, MontgomeryMA, LeBeauMA. A semi-automated solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method for the analysis of tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in whole blood. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 23, 2697–2705 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sergi M , BafileE, CompagnoneD, CuriniR, D’AscenzoG, RomoloFS. Multiclass analysis of illicit drugs in plasma and oral fluids by LC–MS/MS. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 393, 709–718 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowe RH , KarschnerEL, SchwilkeEW, BarnesAJ, HuestisMA. Simultaneous quantification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabiol-9-carboxylic acid in human plasma using two-dimensional gas chromatography, cryofocusing, and electron impact-mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A1163, 318–327 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadulski T , SporkertF, SchnelleMet al. Simultaneous and sensitive analysis of THC, 11-OH-THC, THC-COOH, CBD, and CBN by GC–MS in plasma after oral application of small doses of THC and cannabis extract. J. Anal. Toxicol. 29(8), 782–789 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunault CC , MensingaTT, de Vries Iet al. Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) serum concentrations and pharmacological effects in males after smoking a combination of tobacco and cannabis containing up to 69 mg THC. Psychopharmacol. 201, 171–181 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laloup M , Ramirez-FernandezM, WoodMet al. Quantitative analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in preserved oral fluid by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A1082, 15–24 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonin J , SalquebreG, CirimeleV, KintzP. Criblage de quatre classe de stupéfiants dans la salive par LC-MS/MS. Annal. Toxicol. Anal. 19(2), 141–149 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Øiestad EL , JohansenU, ChristophersenAS. Drug screening of preserved oral fluid by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Clin. Chem. 53(2), 300–309 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Concheiro M , de Castro A, Quintela O, Cruz A, López-Rivadulla M. Determination of illicit and medicinal drugs and their metabolites in oral fluid and preserved oral fluid by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 391, 2329–2338 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simões SS , AjenjoAC, FrancoJM, VieiraDN, DiasMJ. Liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of illicit drugs and medicines in preserved oral fluid. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 23, 1451–1460 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Badawi N , SimonsenKW, SteentoftA, BernhoftIM, LinnetK. Simultaneous screening and quantification of 29 drugs of abuse in oral fluid by solid-phase extraction and ultraperformance LC–MS/MS. Clin. Chem. 55(11), 2004–2018 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore C , RanaS, CoulterC, DayD, VincentM, SoaresJ. Detection of conjugated 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in oral fluid. J. Anal. Toxicol. 31, 187–194 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teixeira H , ProençaP, VerstraeteA, Corte-RealF, VieiraDN. Analysis of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in oral fluid samples using solid-phase extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci. Int. 150, 205–211 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo D , ChenF, XiaoK, FengY. Rapid determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in saliva by polymer monolith microextraction combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Talanta77, 1701–1706 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pujadas M , PichiniS, CivitE, SantamariòaE, PerezK, de la Torre R. A simple and reliable procedure for the determination of psychoactive drugs in oral fluid by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 44, 594–601 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langel K , EngblomC, PehrssonA, GunnarT, AriniemiK, LillsundeP. Drug testing in oral fluid-evaluation of sample collection devices. J. Anal. Toxicol. 32, 393–401 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis MA , ConeEJ. Relationship of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations in oral fluid and plasma after controlled administration of smoked cannabis. J. Anal. Toxicol. 28, 394–399 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummer OH . Introduction and review of collection techniques and applications of drug testing of oral fluid. Ther. Drug Monit. 30(2), 203–205 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Health and Human Services. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Proposed revisions to mandatory guidelines for federal workplace drug testing programs. 69 FR 19673 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Quintela O , CrouchDJ, AndrenyakDM. Recovery of drugs of abuse from the Immunalysis Quantisal™ oral fluid collection device. J. Anal. Toxicol. 30, 614–616 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speedy T , BaldwinD, JowettG, GallinaM, JehanliA. Development and validation of the Cozart DDS oral fluid collection device. Forensic Sci. Int. 170, 117–120 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh JM , VerstraeteAG, HuestisMA, M⊘rlandJ. Guidelines for research on drugged driving. Addiction103(8), 1258–1268 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestis MA , ElSohlyM, NebroW, BarnesA, GustafsonRA, SmithML. Estimating time of last oral ingestion of cannabis from plasma THC and THCCOOH concentrations. Ther. Drug. Monit. 28(4), 540–544 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone EJ , JohnsonRE, DarwinWDet al. Passive inhalation of marijuana smoke: urinalysis and room air levels of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J. Anal. Toxicol. 11, 89–96 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Reyes M , DiGuiseppiS, MasonAP, DavisKH. Passive inhalation of marijuana smoke and urinary excretion of cannabinoids. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 34, 36–41 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedbala S , KardosK, SalamoneS, FritchD, BronsgeestM, ConeEJ. Passive cannabis smoke exposure and oral fluid testing. J. Anal. Toxicol. 28, 546–552 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedbala SR , KardosKW, FritchDFet al. Passive cannabis smoke exposure and oral fluid testing. II. Two studies of extreme cannabis smoke exposure in a motor vehicle. J. Anal. Toxicol. 29, 607–615 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody DE , MontiKM, SpanbauerAC. Long-term stability of abused drugs and antiabuse chemotherapeutical agents stored at -20°C. J. Anal. Toxicol. 23, 535–540 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugan S , BogemaS, SchwartzRW, LappasNT. Stability of drugs of abuse in urine samples stored at -20°C. J. Anal. Toxicol. 18, 391–396 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buddha DP , McKinleyRM, WalshJK, JamirTS, PastMR. Effect of freezing on the concentration of drugs of abuse in urine. J. Anal. Toxicol. 17, 378–380 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roth KDW , SiegelNA, JohnsonRW, LitauszkiL, SalvatiL, HarringtonCA. Investigation of the effects of solution composition and container material type on the loss of 11-nor-Δ9-THC-9-carboxylic acid. J. Anal. Toxicol. 20, 291–300 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skopp G , PötschL. Stability of 11-nor-Δ9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide in plasma and urine assessed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Clin. Chem. 48(2), 301–306 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson JR , JennisonTA, PeatMA, FoltzRL. Stability of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC in blood and plasma. J. Anal. Toxicol. 8(5), 202–204 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong AS , OrbanoskyW, ReeveVC, BeedeJD. Stability of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in stored blood and serum. NIDA Res. Monogr. 42, 119–124 (1982).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christophersen AS . Tetrahydrocannabinol stability in whole blood: plastic versus glass containers. J. Anal. Toxicol. 10(4), 129–131 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toennes S , KauertGF. Importance of vacutainer selection in forensic toxicological analysis of drugs of abuse. J. Anal. Toxicol. 25, 339–343 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardisation. General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories. ISO/IEC 17025 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Ventura M , PichiniS, VenturaRet al. Stability of drugs of abuse in oral fluid collection devices with purpose of external quality assessment schemes. Ther. Drug Monit. 31, 277–280 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke J , WilsonJF. Proficiency testing (external quality assessment) of drug detection in oral fluid. Forensic Sci. Int. 150, 161–164 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Websites

• Conception and Evaluation of Roadside Testing Instruments to formalise impairment evidence in drivers (CERTIFIED). EU Contract no RO-90-RS 3054 (2000) http://drunkdrivingdefense.com/publications-articles/european-study-of-ingestion-of-drugs-and-driving-performance.htm (Accessed December2009)
   Google Scholar
• Parliament of Victoria. Road safety (drug driving) Act 2003. 11/2003 (2003) www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/bill/rsdb2003257/
   Google Scholar
• Knoche A, Bernhoft IM, Mathijssen R et al . Driving under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines (DRUID). Deliverables list. www.druid-project.eu (Accessed December2009)
   Google Scholar
• United Kingdom Laboratory. United Kingdom Laboratory guidelines for legally defensible workplace drug testing. Version 1.0. Urine drug testing (2001) http://ltg.uk.net/pages/monographs/guidelines.asp
   Google Scholar
• Australian Standard®. Procedures for Specimen collection and the detection and quantitation of drugs in oral fluid, AS4760–2006 www.standards.org.au
   Google Scholar