Targeting inflammation as a therapeutic strategy for drug-resistant epilepsies

References

• He JJ, Li S, Shu HF, Yu SX, Liu SY, Yin Q, Yang H. The interleukin 17 system in cortical lesions in focal cortical dysplasias. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2013; 72:152 - 63; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/NEN.0b013e318281262e; PMID: 23334598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Campen JS, Jansen FE, de Graan PN, Braun KP, Joels M. Early life stress in epilepsy: A seizure precipitant and risk factor for epileptogenesis. Epilepsy Behav 2013; S1525:492; PMID: 24144618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janigro D. Are you in or out? Leukocyte, ion, and neurotransmitter permeability across the epileptic blood-brain barrier. Epilepsia 2012; 53:Suppl 1 26 - 34; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03472.x; PMID: 22612806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabbout R. Autoimmune and inflammatory epilepsies. Epilepsia 2012; 53:Suppl 4 58 - 62; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03614.x; PMID: 22946722
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Devinsky O, Schein A, Najjar S. Epilepsy associated with systemic autoimmune disorders. Epilepsy Curr 2013; 13:62 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.5698/1535-7597-13.2.62; PMID: 23646005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basir A, Bougteba A, Kissani N. [Symptomatic status epilepticus secondary to primary Sjögren’s syndrome]. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2010; 166:108 - 10; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurol.2009.05.012; PMID: 19615709
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stojanovich L, Kontic M, Smiljanic D, Djokovic A, Stamenkovic B, Marisavljevic D. Association between non-thrombotic neurological and cardiac manifestations in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2013; 31:756 - 60; PMID: 23899875
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maalouf NN, Hinduja A, Shihabuddin BS. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome manifesting as partial status epilepticus. Neurosciences (Riyadh) 2013; 18:160 - 2; PMID: 23545615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin P, Liu J, Li Z, Wang YY, Qiao NN, Huang SY, Li BM, Sun RP. Prenatal immune challenge in rats increases susceptibility to seizure-induced brain injury in adulthood. Brain Res 2013; 1519:78 - 86; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2013.04.047; PMID: 23648360
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noe FM, Polascheck N, Frigerio F, Bankstahl M, Ravizza T, Marchini S, Beltrame L, Banderó CR, Löscher W, Vezzani A. Pharmacological blockade of IL-1β/IL-1 receptor type 1 axis during epileptogenesis provides neuroprotection in two rat models of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 59:183 - 93; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2013.07.015; PMID: 23938763
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liimatainen S, Kai L, Johanna P, Tiina A, Jukka P. Immunological perspectives of temporal lobe seizures. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 263:1 - 7; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.08.001; PMID: 23998423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer J, Vezzani A, Bien CG. Epileptic encephalitis: the role of the innate and adaptive immune system. Brain Pathol 2012; 22:412 - 21; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3639.2012.00580.x; PMID: 22497613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li YJ, Wang ZH, Zhang B, Zhe X, Wang MJ, Shi ST, Bai J, Lin T, Guo CJ, Zhang SJ, et al. Disruption of the blood-brain barrier after generalized tonic-clonic seizures correlates with cerebrospinal fluid MMP-9 levels. J Neuroinflammation 2013; 10:80; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-10-80; PMID: 23829879
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carney PR. Rasmussen’s syndrome: intractable epilepsy and progressive neurological deterioration from a unilateral central nervous system. CNS Spectr 2001; 6:398 - 409 16; PMID: 15999028
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tekgul H, Polat M, Kitis O, Serdaroglu G, Tosun A, Terlemez S, Kutukculer N, Ersahin Y, Gökben S. T-cell subsets and interleukin-6 response in Rasmussen’s encephalitis. Pediatr Neurol 2005; 33:39 - 45; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2005.01.007; PMID: 15876522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bien CG, Vincent A, Barnett MH, Becker AJ, Blümcke I, Graus F, Jellinger KA, Reuss DE, Ribalta T, Schlegel J, et al. Immunopathology of autoantibody-associated encephalitides: clues for pathogenesis. Brain 2012; 135:1622 - 38; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/aws082; PMID: 22539258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu ZS, Wang QW, Wang FL, Yang LZ. Serum cytokine levels are altered in patients with West syndrome. Brain Dev 2001; 23:548 - 51; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0387-7604(01)00313-8; PMID: 11701253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hattori H. Spontaneous remission of spasms in West syndrome--implications of viral infection. Brain Dev 2001; 23:705 - 7; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0387-7604(01)00278-9; PMID: 11701282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheng JG, Boop FA, Mrak RE, Griffin WST. Increased neuronal β-amyloid precursor protein expression in human temporal lobe epilepsy: association with interleukin-1 α immunoreactivity. J Neurochem 1994; 63:1872 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-4159.1994.63051872.x; PMID: 7931344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vezzani A, Baram TZ. New roles for interleukin-1 Beta in the mechanisms of epilepsy. Epilepsy Curr 2007; 7:45 - 50; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1535-7511.2007.00165.x; PMID: 17505552
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crespel A, Coubes P, Rousset MC, Brana C, Rougier A, Rondouin G, Bockaert J, Baldy-Moulinier M, Lerner-Natoli M. Inflammatory reactions in human medial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis. Brain Res 2002; 952:159 - 69; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(02)03050-0; PMID: 12376176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peltola J, Laaksonen J, Haapala AM, Hurme M, Rainesalo S, Keränen T. Indicators of inflammation after recent tonic-clonic epileptic seizures correlate with plasma interleukin-6 levels. Seizure 2002; 11:44 - 6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/seiz.2001.0575; PMID: 11888259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehtimäki KA, Keränen T, Huhtala H, Hurme M, Ollikainen J, Honkaniemi J, Palmio J, Peltola J. Regulation of IL-6 system in cerebrospinal fluid and serum compartments by seizures: the effect of seizure type and duration. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 152:121 - 5; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.01.024; PMID: 15223244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehtimäki KA, Keränen T, Palmio J, Peltola J. Levels of IL-1beta and IL-1ra in cerebrospinal fluid of human patients after single and prolonged seizures. Neuroimmunomodulation 2010; 17:19 - 22; http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000243081; PMID: 19816053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vezzani A, Balosso S, Ravizza T. The role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. Brain Behav Immun 2008; 22:797 - 803; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2008.03.009; PMID: 18495419
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Simoni MG, Perego C, Ravizza T, Moneta D, Conti M, Marchesi F, De Luigi A, Garattini S, Vezzani A. Inflammatory cytokines and related genes are induced in the rat hippocampus by limbic status epilepticus. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12:2623 - 33; http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00140.x; PMID: 10947836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vezzani A, Conti M, De Luigi A, Ravizza T, Moneta D, Marchesi F, De Simoni MG. Interleukin-1beta immunoreactivity and microglia are enhanced in the rat hippocampus by focal kainate application: functional evidence for enhancement of electrographic seizures. J Neurosci 1999; 19:5054 - 65; PMID: 10366638
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubé C, Vezzani A, Behrens M, Bartfai T, Baram TZ. Interleukin-1beta contributes to the generation of experimental febrile seizures. Ann Neurol 2005; 57:152 - 5; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.20358; PMID: 15622539
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heida JG, Pittman QJ. Causal links between brain cytokines and experimental febrile convulsions in the rat. Epilepsia 2005; 46:1906 - 13; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2005.00294.x; PMID: 16393156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viviani B, Bartesaghi S, Gardoni F, Vezzani A, Behrens MM, Bartfai T, Binaglia M, Corsini E, Di Luca M, Galli CL, et al. Interleukin-1beta enhances NMDA receptor-mediated intracellular calcium increase through activation of the Src family of kinases. J Neurosci 2003; 23:8692 - 700; PMID: 14507968
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balosso S, Maroso M, Sanchez-Alavez M, Ravizza T, Frasca A, Bartfai T, Vezzani A. A novel non-transcriptional pathway mediates the proconvulsive effects of interleukin-1beta. Brain 2008; 131:3256 - 65; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn271; PMID: 18952671
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu S, Sheng WS, Ehrlich LC, Peterson PK, Chao CC. Cytokine effects on glutamate uptake by human astrocytes. Neuroimmunomodulation 2000; 7:153 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000026433; PMID: 10754403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bezzi P, Domercq M, Brambilla L, Galli R, Schols D, De Clercq E, Vescovi A, Bagetta G, Kollias G, Meldolesi J, et al. CXCR4-activated astrocyte glutamate release via TNFalpha: amplification by microglia triggers neurotoxicity. Nat Neurosci 2001; 4:702 - 10; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/89490; PMID: 11426226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viviani B, Gardoni F, Marinovich M. Cytokines and neuronal ion channels in health and disease. Int Rev Neurobiol 2007; 82:247 - 63; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7742(07)82013-7; PMID: 17678965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vezzani A, Moneta D, Conti M, Richichi C, Ravizza T, De Luigi A, De Simoni MG, Sperk G, Andell-Jonsson S, Lundkvist J, et al. Powerful anticonvulsant action of IL-1 receptor antagonist on intracerebral injection and astrocytic overexpression in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:11534 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.190206797; PMID: 11016948
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auvin S, Shin D, Mazarati A, Sankar R. Inflammation induced by LPS enhances epileptogenesis in immature rat and may be partially reversed by IL1RA. Epilepsia 2010; 51:Suppl 3 34 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02606.x; PMID: 20618397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker L, Pirmohamed M, Marson AG. Immunomodulatory interventions for focal epilepsy syndromes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 6:CD009945; PMID: 23803963
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kawai T, Akira S. Signaling to NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptors. Trends Mol Med 2007; 13:460 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2007.09.002; PMID: 18029230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bianchi ME, Manfredi AA. Immunology. Dangers in and out. Science 2009; 323:1683 - 4; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1172794; PMID: 19325105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maroso M, Balosso S, Ravizza T, Iori V, Wright CI, French J, Vezzani A. Interleukin-1β biosynthesis inhibition reduces acute seizures and drug resistant chronic epileptic activity in mice. Neurotherapeutics 2011; 8:304 - 15; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13311-011-0039-z; PMID: 21431948
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maroso M, Balosso S, Ravizza T, Liu J, Bianchi ME, Vezzani A. Interleukin-1 type 1 receptor/Toll-like receptor signalling in epilepsy: the importance of IL-1beta and high-mobility group box 1. J Intern Med 2011; 270:319 - 26; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2011.02431.x; PMID: 21793950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riazi K, Galic MA, Pittman QJ. Contributions of peripheral inflammation to seizure susceptibility: cytokines and brain excitability. Epilepsy Res 2010; 89:34 - 42; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2009.09.004; PMID: 19804959
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacheaux LP, Ivens S, David Y, Lakhter AJ, Bar-Klein G, Shapira M, Heinemann U, Friedman A, Kaufer D. Transcriptome profiling reveals TGF-beta signaling involvement in epileptogenesis. J Neurosci 2009; 29:8927 - 35; http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0430-09.2009; PMID: 19605630
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulkarni SK, Dhir A. Cyclooxygenase in epilepsy: from perception to application. Drugs Today (Barc) 2009; 45:135 - 54; http://dx.doi.org/10.1358/dot.2009.45.2.1322481; PMID: 19343233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman A, Kaufer D, Heinemann U. Blood-brain barrier breakdown-inducing astrocytic transformation: novel targets for the prevention of epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2009; 85:142 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2009.03.005; PMID: 19362806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabene PF, Navarro Mora G, Martinello M, Rossi B, Merigo F, Ottoboni L, Bach S, Angiari S, Benati D, Chakir A, et al. A role for leukocyte-endothelial adhesion mechanisms in epilepsy. Nat Med 2008; 14:1377 - 83; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm.1878; PMID: 19029985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ransohoff RM. Immunology: Barrier to electrical storms. Nature 2009; 457:155 - 6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/457155a; PMID: 19129836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theoharides TC. Mast cells: the immune gate to the brain. Life Sci 1990; 46:607 - 17; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(90)90129-F; PMID: 2407920
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esposito P, Chandler N, Kandere K, Basu S, Jacobson S, Connolly R, Tutor D, Theoharides TC. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and brain mast cells regulate blood-brain-barrier permeability induced by acute stress. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002; 303:1061 - 6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/jpet.102.038497; PMID: 12438528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theoharides TC, Konstantinidou AD. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and the blood-brain-barrier. Front Biosci 2007; 12:1615 - 28; http://dx.doi.org/10.2741/2174; PMID: 17127408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rehni AK, Singh TG, Singh N, Arora S. Tramadol-induced seizurogenic effect: a possible role of opioid-dependent histamine H1 receptor activation-linked mechanism. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2010; 381:11 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00210-009-0476-y; PMID: 20012267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suemitsu S, Watanabe M, Yokobayashi E, Usui S, Ishikawa T, Matsumoto Y, Yamada N, Okamoto M, Kuroda S. Fcgamma receptors contribute to pyramidal cell death in the mouse hippocampus following local kainic acid injection. Neuroscience 2010; 166:819 - 31; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.01.004; PMID: 20074624
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Kleij H, Charles N, Karimi K, Mao YK, Foster J, Janssen L, Chang Yang P, Kunze W, Rivera J, Bienenstock J. Evidence for neuronal expression of functional Fc (epsilon and gamma) receptors. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 125:757 - 60; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.10.054; PMID: 20132972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theoharides TC, Zhang B. Neuro-inflammation, blood-brain barrier, seizures and autism. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:168; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-8-168; PMID: 22129087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiuza C, Bustin M, Talwar S, Tropea M, Gerstenberger E, Shelhamer JH, Suffredini AF. Inflammation-promoting activity of HMGB1 on human microvascular endothelial cells. Blood 2003; 101:2652 - 60; http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2002-05-1300; PMID: 12456506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hreggvidsdottir HS, Ostberg T, Wähämaa H, Schierbeck H, Aveberger AC, Klevenvall L, Palmblad K, Ottosson L, Andersson U, Harris HE. The alarmin HMGB1 acts in synergy with endogenous and exogenous danger signals to promote inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 86:655 - 62; http://dx.doi.org/10.1189/jlb.0908548; PMID: 19564572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman A, Dingledine R. Molecular cascades that mediate the influence of inflammation on epilepsy. Epilepsia 2011; 52:Suppl 3 33 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03034.x; PMID: 21542844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auvin S, Shin D, Mazarati A, Nakagawa J, Miyamoto J, Sankar R. Inflammation exacerbates seizure-induced injury in the immature brain. Epilepsia 2007; 48:Suppl 5 27 - 34; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2007.01286.x; PMID: 17910578
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takemiya T, Maehara M, Matsumura K, Yasuda S, Sugiura H, Yamagata K. Prostaglandin E2 produced by late induced COX-2 stimulates hippocampal neuron loss after seizure in the CA3 region. Neurosci Res 2006; 56:103 - 10; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2006.06.003; PMID: 16837093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlichtiger J, Pekcec A, Bartmann H, Winter P, Fuest C, Soerensen J, Potschka H. Celecoxib treatment restores pharmacosensitivity in a rat model of pharmacoresistant epilepsy. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:1062 - 71; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00765.x; PMID: 20590600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulkkonen J, Koskikallio E, Rainesalo S, Keränen T, Hurme M, Peltola J. The balance of inhibitory and excitatory cytokines is differently regulated in vivo and in vitro among therapy resistant epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Res 2004; 59:199 - 205; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2004.04.007; PMID: 15246121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu N, Di Q, Hu Y, Zhang YF, Su LY, Liu XH, Li LC. A meta-analysis of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the plasma of epileptic patients with recent seizure. Neurosci Lett 2012; 514:110 - 5; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2012.02.070; PMID: 22402188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirvonen J, Kreisl WC, Fujita M, Dustin I, Khan O, Appel S, Zhang Y, Morse C, Pike VW, Innis RB, et al. Increased in vivo expression of an inflammatory marker in temporal lobe epilepsy. J Nucl Med 2012; 53:234 - 40; http://dx.doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.111.091694; PMID: 22238156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou J, Wang YX, Dou FF, Lü HZ, Ma ZW, Lu PH, Xu XM. Glutamine synthetase down-regulation reduces astrocyte protection against glutamate excitotoxicity to neurons. Neurochem Int 2010; 56:577 - 84; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2009.12.021; PMID: 20064572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saito O, Svensson CI, Buczynski MW, Wegner K, Hua XY, Codeluppi S, Schaloske RH, Deems RA, Dennis EA, Yaksh TL. Spinal glial TLR4-mediated nociception and production of prostaglandin E(2) and TNF. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:1754 - 64; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00811.x; PMID: 20649577
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grazia de Simoni M, Imeri L, De Matteo W, Perego C, Simard S, Terrazzino S. Sleep regulation: interactions among cytokines and classical neurotransmitters. Adv Neuroimmunol 1995; 5:189 - 200; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0960-5428(95)00008-P; PMID: 7496612
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baamonde A, Hidalgo A, Menéndez L. Involvement of glutamate NMDA and AMPA receptors, glial cells and IL-1β in the spinal hyperalgesia evoked by the chemokine CCL2 in mice. Neurosci Lett 2011; 502:178 - 81; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2011.07.038; PMID: 21827829
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rigau V, Morin M, Rousset MC, de Bock F, Lebrun A, Coubes P, Picot MC, Baldy-Moulinier M, Bockaert J, Crespel A, et al. Angiogenesis is associated with blood-brain barrier permeability in temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain 2007; 130:1942 - 56; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awm118; PMID: 17533168
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chuang YC, Chen SD, Lin TK, Chang WN, Lu CH, Liou CW, Chan SH, Chang AY. Transcriptional upregulation of nitric oxide synthase II by nuclear factor-kappaB promotes apoptotic neuronal cell death in the hippocampus following experimental status epilepticus. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:1898 - 907; PMID: 20155797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lubin FD, Ren Y, Xu X, Anderson AE. Nuclear factor-kappa B regulates seizure threshold and gene transcription following convulsant stimulation. J Neurochem 2007; 103:1381 - 95; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04863.x; PMID: 17727632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts DJ, Goralski KB. A critical overview of the influence of inflammation and infection on P-glycoprotein expression and activity in the brain. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2008; 4:1245 - 64; http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/17425255.4.10.1245; PMID: 18798696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Specchio N, Fusco L, Claps D, Trivisano M, Longo D, Cilio MR, Valeriani M, Cusmai R, Cappelletti S, Gentile S, et al. Childhood refractory focal epilepsy following acute febrile encephalopathy. Eur J Neurol 2011; 18:952 - 61; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.03253.x; PMID: 21087361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavone P, Passaniti E, Taibi R, Longo MR, Nunnari G, Verrotti A, Serra A, Falsaperla R, Cocuzza S. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy when plasmapheresis fails in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with severe ADAMTS 13 deficiency in childhood: a case report. European Journal of Inflammation 2013; 11:291 - 6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavone P, Striano P, Falsaperla R, Pavone L, Ruggieri M. Infantile spasms syndrome, West syndrome and related phenotypes: What we know in 2013. Brain Dev 2013; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2013.10.008; PMID: 24268986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuida K, Lippke JA, Ku G, Harding MW, Livingston DJ, Su MS, Flavell RA. Altered cytokine export and apoptosis in mice deficient in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. Science 1995; 267:2000 - 3; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.7535475; PMID: 7535475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravizza T, Lucas SM, Balosso S, Bernardino L, Ku G, Noé F, Malva J, Randle JC, Allan S, Vezzani A. Inactivation of caspase-1 in rodent brain: a novel anticonvulsive strategy. Epilepsia 2006; 47:1160 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00590.x; PMID: 16886979
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravizza T, Gagliardi B, Noé F, Boer K, Aronica E, Vezzani A. Innate and adaptive immunity during epileptogenesis and spontaneous seizures: evidence from experimental models and human temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurobiol Dis 2008; 29:142 - 60; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2007.08.012; PMID: 17931873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randle JCR, Harding MW, Ku G, Schönharting M, Kurrle R. ICE/Caspase-1 inhibitors as novel anti-inflammatory drugs. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2001; 10:1207 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/13543784.10.7.1207; PMID: 11772244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated. Study of VX-765 in subjects with treatment-resistant partial epilepsy. Clinical Trials. gov database. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01048255. Accessed October 18, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Vezzani A, Balosso S, Maroso M, Zardoni D, Noé F, Ravizza T. ICE/caspase 1 inhibitors and IL-1beta receptor antagonists as potential therapeutics in epilepsy. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2010; 11:43 - 50; PMID: 20047158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godukhin OV, Levin SG, Parnyshkova EY. The effects of interleukin-10 on the development of epileptiform activity in the hippocampus induced by transient hypoxia, bicuculline, and electrical kindling. Neurosci Behav Physiol 2009; 39:625 - 31; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11055-009-9187-6; PMID: 19621265
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matsuo M, Sasaki K, Ichimaru T, Nakazato S, Hamasaki Y. Increased IL-1beta production from dsRNA-stimulated leukocytes in febrile seizures. Pediatr Neurol 2006; 35:102 - 6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2005.12.005; PMID: 16876005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang J, Ganesh T, Du Y, Quan Y, Serrano G, Qui M, Speigel I, Rojas A, Lelutiu N, Dingledine R. Small molecule antagonist reveals seizure-induced mediation of neuronal injury by prostaglandin E2 receptor subtype EP2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:3149 - 54; http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1120195109; PMID: 22323596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergey GK. Autoantibodies in the patient with drug-resistant epilepsy: are we missing a treatable etiology?. Arch Neurol 2012; 69:565 - 6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneurol.2012.354; PMID: 22451161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichert JM. Marketed therapeutic antibodies compendium. MAbs 2012; 4:413 - 5; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/mabs.19931; PMID: 22531442
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angiari S, Constantin G. Selectins and their ligands as potential immunotherapeutic targets in neurological diseases. Immunotherapy 2013; 5:1207 - 20; http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/imt.13.122; PMID: 24188675
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kino T, Hatanaka H, Hashimoto M, Nishiyama M, Goto T, Okuhara M, Kohsaka M, Aoki H, Imanaka H. FK-506, a novel immunosuppressant isolated from a Streptomyces. I. Fermentation, isolation, and physico-chemical and biological characteristics. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 1987; 40:1249 - 55; http://dx.doi.org/10.7164/antibiotics.40.1249; PMID: 2445721
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chwiej J, Janeczko K, Marciszko M, Czyzycki M, Rickers K, Setkowicz Z. Neuroprotective action of FK-506 (tacrolimus) after seizures induced with pilocarpine: quantitative and topographic elemental analysis of brain tissue. J Biol Inorg Chem 2010; 15:283 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00775-009-0597-2; PMID: 19862562
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Setkowicz Z, Ciarach M. Neuroprotectants FK-506 and cyclosporin A ameliorate the course of pilocarpine-induced seizures. Epilepsy Res 2007; 73:151 - 5; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2006.09.001; PMID: 17095192
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki K, Omura S, Ohashi Y, Kawai M, Iwata Y, Tani K, Sekine Y, Takei N, Mori N. FK506 facilitates chemical kindling induced by pentylenetetrazole in rats. Epilepsy Res 2001; 46:279 - 82; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-1211(01)00284-4; PMID: 11518629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chrzaszcz M, Venkatesan C, Dragisic T, Watterson DM, Wainwright MS. Minozac treatment prevents increased seizure susceptibility in a mouse “two-hit” model of closed skull traumatic brain injury and electroconvulsive shock-induced seizures. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:1283 - 95; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/neu.2009.1227; PMID: 20486807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd E, Somera-Molina K, Van Eldik LJ, Watterson DM, Wainwright MS. Suppression of acute proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine upregulation by post-injury administration of a novel small molecule improves long-term neurologic outcome in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury. J Neuroinflammation 2008; 5:28; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-5-28; PMID: 18590543
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li C, Ma WN, Wang H. [Changes of regulatory T cells in the peripheral blood of children with epilepsy]. Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi 2011; 13:889 - 92; PMID: 22099198
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vitaliti G, Pavone P, Guglielmo F, Falsaperla R. Sublingual immunotherapy in preschool children: an update. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2013; 9:385 - 90; http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/eci.13.7; PMID: 23557273
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar