Antioxidant-rich natural fruit and vegetable products and human health

Figures & data

Figure 1. Groupings of bioactive compounds present in fruits and vegetables. Source: Desjardins.^[19] β-carotene α-carotene

Table 1. Comparative list of selected fruit and vegetables (FAVs) phytochemicals and their antioxidant-richness

Fruit and vegetables	Phytochemical class	Phytochemical subclass	Antioxidants	References
Fruits
Apple	Triterpenoids	Sterols	Campesterol, β-sitosterol	^[Citation31]
	Flavonoids	Anthocyanins	Cyanidin, delphinidin
		Flavanols	Catechin
		Flavonols	Quercetin, kaemferol
		Dihydrochalcones	Phloretin
	Phenolic acids	Hydroxycinnamic acids	Ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid
		Salicylates
Apricot	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene	^[Citation31]
	Flavonoids	Flavonols	Quercetin, kaempferol
		Dihydrochalcones	Phloretin
Banana	Phenolic acids	Hydroxybenzoic acids	Gallic acid	^[Citation31,Citation37–43]
	Flavonoids	Flavanols	Catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin
		Flavonols	Myricetin
	Lignans		Pinoresinol
	Triterpenoids	Sterols	Campesterol
Berries	Phenolic acids	Hydroxybenzoic acids	Gallic acid	^[Citation31,Citation43]
	Flavonoids	Flavanols	Catechin
		Flavonols	Quercetin, kaempferol
		Anthocyanins	Cyanidin, delphinidin
	Stilbenoids		Resveratrol, pterostilbene, piceatannol
Carrot	Flavonoids	Anthocyanins	Cyanidin, delphinidin	^[Citation31]
		Flavones	Apigenin
	Lignans		Pinoresinol
	Monoterpenoids		Limonene
	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene
Grape	Phenolic acids	Hydroxybenzoic acid	Gallic acid, protocatechuic acid	^[Citation44]
		Hydroxycinnamic acid	Caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid
	Flavonoids	Flavanols	Catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin
		Flavonols	Myricetin-3-O-glucoside, myricetin-3-O-glucuronide, kaempferol, quercetin, isorhamntin-3-O-Glucoside
		Anthocyanins	Cyanidin, delphinidin
Mango	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, xanthophylls	^[Citation31,Citation35,Citation45]
Orange	Monoterpenoids		Limonene	^[Citation31,Citation35,Citation45–48]
	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, xanthophylls
	Flavonoids	Flavonones	Eriodictyol, hesperetin, chrysin, luteolin, naringenin
	Organic acids	Aldonic acids	Vitamin C
	Organic acids	Aldaric acids	Tartaric acid
		Aldonic acids	Vitamin C
Papaya	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, xanthophylls	^[Citation31,Citation35,Citation45,Citation46]
	Organic acids	Aldonic acids	Vitamin C
Pomegranate	Phenolic acid	Hydroxybenzoic acids	Gallic acid, ellagic acid	^[Citation31]
	Triterpenoids	Sterols	Campesterol
Vegetables
Asparagus	Triterpenoids	Sterols	Campesterol, β-sitosterol	^[Citation31]
Broccoli	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene, xanthophylls	(8,35,40,46,47,49–58)
		Quinones	Phylloquinone, menadione
	Triterpenoids	Tocopherols & tocotrienols	α-tocopherol, β-tocopherol, α-T3, β-T3, α-tocotrienol, β- tocotrienols
		Sterols	Sitosterol, β-sitosterol, sitostanol, campesterol, brassicaterol, stigmasterol, campestanol
	Flavonoids	Anthocyanins	Cyanidin,
		Flavanols	Catechin, luteolin, pelargonidin, butein
		Flavonols	Quercetin, kaempferol,
	Tanins	Condensed tannins	Procyanidin A1, procyanidin B2
		Glucosinolates	Progoitrin, sinigrin, glucoiberin, glucoraphanin, glucoalyssin, gluconasturtiin, gluconapin
Brussels sprout	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoid	β-carotene	^[Citation40,Citation46,Citation50,Citation54,Citation57,Citation58]
	Triterpenoids	Tocopherols and tocotrienols	α-tocopherol, β-tocopherol, α-T3, β-T3, α-tocotrienol, β- tocotrienols
		Sterols	Campesterol, β-sitosterol, sitostanol, stigmasterol, brassicasterol,
	Lignans		Lariciresinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol
		Glucosinolates	Progoitrin, sinigrin, glucoiberin, glucoraphanin, glucoalyssin, gluconapin, gluconasturtiin
Cabbage	Glucosinolates	Aromatic glucosinulates	Glucobrassicin	^[Citation31]
		Aliphatic glucosinulates	Sulforaphane
	Phenolic acids	Hydroxycinnamic acids	Ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid
	Lignans		Pinoresinol
	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene
Eggplant	Phenolic acids	Hydroxycinnamic acids	Chlorogenic acid, caffeoylquinic acid	^[Citation34,Citation59]
	Flavonoids		Kaempferol, quercetin, apigenin, isorhamnetin, rutin
		Anthocyanins	Delphinidin, nasunin,
		Carotenoids	Lutein, zeaxanthin
	Glycoalkaloids		α-solamargine, α-solasonine
Onion	Triterpenoids	Sterols	Campesterol, β-sitosterol	^[Citation31]
	Sulfur compounds	Thiosulfinates	Allicin
	Flavonoids	Anthocyanins	Cyanidin, delphinidin
		Flavonols	Quercetin, kaempferol
	Lignans		Pinoresinol
Spinach	Triterpenoids	Phenolic terpenes	Vitamin E	^[Citation31]
	Tetrapenoids	Carotenoids	α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene
Vanilla grass	Coumarins		Coumarin	^[Citation31]

Table 2. Antioxidant contents of some fruits and vegetables in mg/100 g fresh food

FAVs	Flavanols	β-carotene	Lycopene	Isoflavones	Anthocyanins	Flavan-3-ols	Proanthocyanidins	References
Fruits
Apple	2.0–26.0	-	-	-	1.8–17.0	2.3–7.3	7.5–141.0	^[Citation70–73]
Avocado	-	-	-	-	-	0.1	0.02–7.4	^[Citation71–73]
Banana	25.2–58.8	-	-	-	-	0.1	4.0	^[Citation71–73]
Kiwi	-	-	-	-	-	-	3.7–13.9	^[Citation73]
Mango	-	-	-	-	-	-	12.8	^[Citation73]
Orange	-	173–211^a	-	-	-	-	-	^[Citation74]
Papaya	-	471^a	-	-	-	-	-	^[Citation74]
Passion fruit	-	1362^b	-	-	-	-	-	^[Citation75]
Peach	0.3	-	-	-	4.7	1.2	7.4–67.3	^[Citation70,Citation71,Citation73,Citation76]
Pear	0.3–4.5	-	-	-	-	0.9	1.1–42.3	^[Citation70,Citation71,Citation73]
Pineapple	-	-	-	-	11.6 ^c	-	-	^[Citation75]
Watermelon	-	616–1040^a	11,378^a	-	-	-	-	^[Citation74]
Vegetables
Broccoli	10.2	-	-	13.7	113.0	-	-	^[Citation70,Citation76,Citation77]
Cauliflower	0–3.1	-	-	-	-	-	-	^[Citation72]
Eggplant	-	-	-	7.9	35.1	-	-	^[Citation76,Citation77]
Lettuce	0.9–7.4	-	-	-	1.5	-	-	^[Citation70–73,Citation76]
Onion	1–135.9	-	-	17.6	38.8	-	-	^[Citation70,Citation76–78]
Peas	0.3–14.5	-	-	54.1–477	-	-	-	^[Citation70,Citation77–78]
Spinach	0.3	-	-	-	-	0.01	-	^[Citation71,Citation79]
Sweet potato	-	13.0	-	-	-	-	-	^[Citation80]
Tomatoes	0.2–7.4	-	-	32.5	-	-	-	^[Citation70,Citation72,Citation77,Citation78]

^a1 g/serving of edible portion; ^b µg/100 g dry basis; ^c mg/100 g dry basis.

Figure 2. Chemical structure of carotene

Figure 3. Basic structure of flavonoids. R = OH: flavonols; R = H: flavones.Source: Stalikas^[136]

Figure 4. Structures of naturally occurring phenolic acids. A, Hydroxybenzoic; and B, hydroxycinnamic structures. R1, R2, and R3 represents H, OH, and OCH3. Source: Stalikas^[136]

Table 3. Analytical methods for determination of antioxidant properties of fruits and vegetables

Method of determination^1	Antioxidants determined	References
HPLC	Phenolic compounds; chlorogenic acid, (-)-epicatechin, (+)-catechin, caffeic acid, rutin, quercetin-glycosides and phloridzin, lycopene, beta-carotene	^[Citation72,Citation152]
ABTS assay	Antioxidant compounds, antioxidant capacity	^[Citation151,Citation153]
DPPH assay	Antioxidant compounds, antioxidant capacity	^[Citation151,Citation153]
FRAP	Antioxidant compounds	^[Citation151,Citation154]
ORAC	Antioxidant compounds: ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, glutathione, bilirubin, uric acid, melatonin, flavonoids	^[Citation43,Citation154]
TEAC	NA	^[Citation151,Citation154]
VCEAC	Determination of vitamin C equivalent	^[Citation151]
Folin-Ciocalteau method	Total phenols	^[Citation151,Citation152]
Vanillin assay	Total flavan-3-ols, proanthocyanidins	^[Citation152]
GC-MS, LC-MS	Flavonoids; isoflavones, flavonones, anthocyanins, flavonols, flavones	^[Citation140]
β-carotene method	β-carotene	^[Citation155]
PSC	Total phenolics	^[Citation156]

¹ABTS, 2,20-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid; DPPH, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; ORAC, oxygen radical absorbance capacity; FRAP, ferric reducing antioxidant power; TEAC, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity; VCEAC, vitamin C equivalent antioxidant capacity; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; GC-MS, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; LC-MS, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; PSC, peroxyl radical-scavenging capacity; NA, not available.

Figure 5. Structures of plant lignans present in fruits and vegetables. Source: Heinonen et al.^[208]

Table 4. Fruits and vegetables and their health functions

Fruits and vegetables	Available antioxidants	Health functions	References
Fruits
Acai	Flavonoids; orientin, homoorientin, vitexin, chrysoeriol, quercetin and dihydrokaemferol.	Reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells. Alleviation of oxidative stress in aging	^[Citation154]
Apple	Anthocyanins, flavonol glycosides, chlorogenic and ρ-coumaroylquinic acid, phloretin glucoside, xyloglucoside, (-)-epicatechin, (+)-catechin, procyanidins and vitamin C.	Inhibit cancer cell proliferation, decrease lipid oxidation, reduces risk of some cancers, cardiovascular disease, asthma, diabetes and lower cholesterol	^[Citation216,Citation217]
Avocado	Serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine, sterols, monounsaturated FAs; linoleic, palmitoleic, cis-vaccenic and γ-linolenic acids.	Reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, functions as neurotransmitter	^[Citation154,Citation218]
Berries	Ascorbic acid, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tocopherols	Exhibits chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activities in vitro and in vivo and inhibition of proliferation of the human lung epithelial cancer cell line A549	^[Citation219,Citation220]
Citrus fruit	Pectin, limonoids; limonin and nomilin, flavonoids; hesperidin and naringin	Possess anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiviral and antiatherogenic properties and an ability to inhibit human platelet aggregation	^[Citation221,Citation222]
Durian	n-3 fatty acids, caffeic acid, quercetin.	Cholesterol reduction in the body	^[Citation154]
Grape	Phenolic acid, stilbenes, flavonols, flavanols, viniferin and anthocyanins	Reduction of low-density lipoprotein, inhibition of platelet aggregation and antifungal agent	^[Citation223,Citation224]
Graviola	Folic acid, vitamin C	Maintains intestinal flora, functions as a good diuretic (juice), promotes weight loss, used in normalizing acidity of the stomach, possess anti-rheumatic and anti-inflammatory properties	^[Citation154]
Guava	Vitamin C, polyphenols	Normalizes body blood pressure	^[Citation225,Citation226]
Kiwano	Rutin, myricetin, quercetin, caffeic acid, ascorbic acid, malic acid and oxalic acid	Anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, capillary protective and blood platelet aggregation inhibitory activities	^[Citation154]
Kiwifruit	Afzelin, astragalin, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rutin, epicatechin, catechin, procyanidins, quercetin and kaempferol	NA	^[Citation227]
Litchi	(-)-epicatechin and procyanidin	NA	^[Citation154]
Mango	Ascorbic acid, β-carotene, polyphenols; mangiferin, catechins, quercetin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, anthocyanins, gallic acid, ellagic acids, propyl gallate, methyl gallate, protocatechuic acid	Protect human cells against damage, helps to combat degenerative diseases like cancer and heart disease.	^[Citation228,Citation229]
Persimmon	β-carotene, polyphenols; ρ-coumaric acid, catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin and condensed proanthocyanidins	NA	^[Citation230]
Pineapple	Epicatechin, ferulic acid, gallic acid, catechin, sterols, bromelain	Anti-inflammatory, anti-invasive, anti-metastatic, anti-tumor	^[Citation154,Citation231]
Prickly pear	Vitamins, β-carotene, betanin and indicaxanthin	Undergoes radical-scavenging and reducing properties	^[Citation232,Citation233]
Star fruit (Carambola)	Anthocyanins, catechins, epicatechin, gallic acid	Halt hemorrhages, mitigate liver problems, diarrhea, counteracts fever and hangover after excessive alcohol	^[Citation234,Citation235]
Stone fruit	β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, caffeoyltartaric acid, 3-p-coumaroylquinic acid, ascorbic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, chlorogenic and neochlorogenic acid	Scavenge hydroxyl radicals, inhibition of LDL oxidation	^[Citation236]
Vegetables
Allium (onions & garlic)	Diallyl sulfide and allylmethyl trisulfide	Inhibits LDL oxidation, cell proliferation and growth, enhance the immune system, alters carcinogen activation, stimulate detoxification enzymes, and reduces carcinogen-DNA binding	^[Citation237,Citation238]
Beetroot	Betalains, polyphenols	Inhibition of LDL oxidation	^[Citation239]
Carrot	β-carotene, linolenic acid and vitamin A,		^[Citation240]
Cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, Kale)	Glucosinolates and S-methylcysteine sulfoxide	Cancer chemo-preventive effects, prevention of lipid peroxidation	^[Citation241,Citation242]
Lettuce	Polyphenols	Inhibition of LDL oxidation	^[Citation240]
Pepper	Vitamin A and C, phenolic compounds provitamin A, β-carotene, α-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin and xanthophyll	Acts as pro-oxidants	^[Citation243,Citation244]
Potato	Ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, violaxanthin, lutein and polyphenolic compounds	NA	^[Citation245,Citation246]
Spinach	Polyphenols	Inhibition of LDL oxidation	^[Citation240]
Tomato	Vitamins A C and E, β-carotene, lycopene, potassium, flavonoids and folic acid	Prevention of cancer and heart diseases, acts as pro-oxidant in a lipid environment	^[Citation247–249]

NA, not available.

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