Millets: sustainable treasure house of bioactive components

Figures & data

Figure 1. Millets: health benefits, production, and challenges in India. Data were taken from various issues.^[20]

Figure 2. Comparison between two different types of crops.

Table 1. Major millets crops, their common and botanical name, properties, and their origin.

Millet (Major Crop)	Common name	Botanical name	Unique properties	Origin Production area in India	References
Pearl Millet	Bajra	Pennisetum glaucum	Grow in arid, semi-arid regions Rich source of vitamin B9 High in omega-3 fatty acids.	India Production area stands at first all over other crops	^[Citation31]
Finger Millet	Ragi	Eleusine coracana	Drought tolerant due to efficient antioxidant potential The richest source of calcium Highest dietary fiber content.	Africa, South Asia Production area stands sixth all over other crops	^[Citation32]
Proso Millet	Cheena	Panicum miliaceum	Late-seeded summer crop. Heat tolerant crop	China, Japan, Africa, India Production area is one-third of the world’s population	^[Citation33]
Foxtail Millet	Kangni	Setaria italica	Short life cycle High water use efficiency	Australia, south-eastern Europe, China. Production area ranks second all over other crops.	^[Citation34]

Table 2. Minor millets crops, their common and botanical name, properties and their origin.

Minor Crops	Common Name	Botanical Name	Unique Properties	Origin Production area in India	References
Barnyard Millet	Sawan	Echinochloa spp.	tall growing capacious fodder	Asia, Japan, China, Korea, India 4^th minor crop India is the largest Producer.	References
Kodo Millet	Cow grass, Kodo	Paspalum scrobiculatum	mainly grown in moist, shady places. long growth duration	South Asian countries _	^[Citation16,Citation35]
Little Millet	Samai, kutki	Panicum sumatrense	highly tolerant to moisture stress and waterlogging	India 80% of production is in India	^[Citation36]
Guinea Millet	Bajra, babala	Brachiaria deflexa	potential as a grain crop	_	^[Citation37]
Browntop Millet	korale	Brachiaria ramosa	fast maturing cereal crop	India	^[Citation38,Citation39]
Sorghum	Bajra	Sorghum bicolor	extreme drought tolerant crop than other cereals	America, Australia In India, its production is in the fifth position	^[Citation40]

Table 3. Proximate composition of Millet.

Millets $\to$ Properties	Pearl millet	Finger millet	Proso millet	Foxtail millet	Barnyard millet	Little millet	Kodo millet	Sorghum
Carbohydrate(g)	61.78 ± .85	66.82 ± 0.73	7.04 ± .03	60.09 ± 0.02	65.55 ± 0.09	65.55 ± 1.29	66.19 ± 0.19	67.68 ± 0.03
Fat (g)	5.43 ± .64	1.92 ± 0.14	1.10 ± .43	4.30 ± 0.54	2.20 ± 0.54	2.55 ± 0.13	2.55 ± 0.13	5.43 ± 0.64
Dietary fiber(g)	11.49 ± .62	11.18 ± 0.14	-	-	-	06.39 ± 0.60	06.39 ± 0.60	11.49 ± 0.62
Protein (g)	1.96 ± .26	07.16 ± 0.63	12.50 ± .01	12.30 ± 0.20	06.20 ± 0.32	08.92 ± 1.09	08.92 ± 0.09	09.97 ± 0.43
Calcium (mg)	27.35 ± .16	364 ± 0.58	-	-	-	16.06 ± 154	15.27 ± 0.28	27.60 ± 0.71
Iron (mg)	6.42 ± .04	4.62 ± 0.36	-	-	-	1.26 ± 0.44	2.34 ± 0.46	3.95 ± 0.94
Folate (B9)(µg)	36.11 ± .05	34.66 ± 0.97	-	-	-	36.20 ± 0.04	39.49 ±0.52	39.42 ± 0.13
Ω-6 fatty acids Linoleic acid	1844 ± .04	362 ± 0.03	-	66.50 ± 0.04	34.90 ± 0.05	1230 ± 0.42	576 ± 0.17	508 ± 0.18
Ω-9 fatty acidOleic acid	1040 ± .39	585 ± 0.36	-	13.0 ± 0.04	53.80 ± 0.03	868 ± 0.24	291 ± 0.07	3.14 ± 0.13

Source: Indian Food Composition Tables, NIN − 2017 and *Nutritive value of Indian foods, NIN − 2007 (44)

Table 4. Nutritional and anti-nutritional comparison of major staple cereals.

Properties	Wheat	Rice	Maize	Millets (pearl millet)
Carbohydrate (g)	64.72 ± 0.74	74.80 ± 0.85	64.77 ± 1.58	61.78 ± .85
Protein (g)	10.59 ± 0.60	09.16 ± 0.75	08.80 ± 0.49	1.96 ± .26
Fat (g)	1.47 ± 0.05	1.24 ± 0.08	3.77 ± 0.48	5.43 ± .64
Dietary fiber (g)	11.23 ± 0.77	04.43 ± 0.54	12.24 ± 0.93	11.49 ± .62
Vitamins (µg)	30.09 ± 0.07	11.51 ± 0.69	25.81 ± 0.44	36.11 ± .05
Polyphenol (mg)	80.24 ± 0.13	70.08 ± 0.02	-	102 ± .01
Minerals calcium (mg)	39.36 ± 0.65	10.93 ± 0.79	8.94 ± 0.61	27.35 ± .16

Source: Indian Food Composition Tables, NIN − 2017 and *Nutritive value of Indian foods, NIN − 2007

Table 5. The nutritive advantages of millet.

Diseases	Pearl millet	Finger millet	Barnyard millet	Proso millet	Sorghum	Foxtail millet
Cardiovascular disease	Lignin and phytonutrients act as antioxidants-preventing heart disease	Low concentration of serum triglycerides- may prevent CVDs	Rats that were fed on a barnyard millet diet had shown lower blood glucose, and serum cholesterol	Improved plasma levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), were seen in obese type 2, diabetic mice under high-fat conditions on feeding with proso millet	Regular intake of a diet rich in whole grains reduces heart disease by 40%.	Reduces the risk of heart attacks
References	^[Citation41]	^[Citation42]	^[Citation43,Citation44]	^[Citation45]	^[Citation46]	^[Citation47,Citation48]
Diabetes Mellitus	High fiber content reduces the rate of digestion and releases glucose into the blood slowly	Alpha amylase inhibition properties lower starch digestibility and absorption	Has been proven beneficial for diabetes type 2	Under high-fat feeding conditions, type 2 diabetic mice had shown improved glycemic responses	Slowly digestible starch (SDS) in a good amount prolongs digestion and carbs in the intestine Fibers, tannins, vitamin E, and phenolic compounds are present that reduce the risk of diabetes	The extracts of these millets have wonderful ant-hyperglycemic activity
References	^[Citation49]	^[Citation50]		^[Citation51]	^[Citation52]
Coeliac disease	Millets are the ones that are gluten-free, hence preventing celiac disease	As millets are gluten-free, suitable for celiac patients.	It provides all the major nutrients that make it a complete diet for celiac patients.	Being gluten-free suitable for celiac patients.	Sorghum millets don’t increase the level of anti-transglutaminase antibodies after constipation	Gluten-free millets prevent celiac diseases.
References	^[Citation53]	^[Citation54]	^[Citation55]	^[Citation56]	^[Citation48]	^[Citation57]
Obesity	Satisfies hunger for a longer period of time, lowering calorie intake.	Finger millet contains an amino acid called tryptophan, which lowers appetite and keeps weight in control	Being rich in dietary fiber, reduce the risk of obesity.	Reduces the risk of obesity.	Rich in dietary fiber, has excellent physical properties that satisfy hunger, increases satiety	Rich in dietary fiber, reduces hunger.
References		^[Citation57]			^[Citation33]
Cancer	-	-	-	Complex carbohydrates are present that can be valuable in preventing cancer	Polyphenols and tannins present have anti-mutagenic and anti-cancerous properties	It shows the anti-colon cancer effect.
References				^[Citation30]	^[Citation58]
Oxidative stress		-	Phytates and Phytic acid present give protection against oxidative stress by chelating effect	-	Sorghum has potential antioxidant property that reacts against oxidative species	-
References					^[Citation33]

Table 6. Bio-active components along with their health benefits.

Bioactive component	Examples	Chief Millet source	Benefits	References
Polyphenols	Hydroxycinnamic acids protocatechuric, vanillic acidHydroxybenzoic acids- coumaric acid, snapic, ferulic acid	Finger millet (BRAN LAYER)	Prevents Arthritis, inflammation, epithelial neoplasms, and neuro-degenerative orders.	^[Citation59]
Flavonoids	Quercitin, catechin, tricin, luteolin, myricetin	Pearl millet, Finger millet, Sorghum (SEED COAT)	Cyro-protective, anti-inflammation, anti-cancerous potential	^[Citation60]
Tannins	Polymers of flavon-3-ol	Barnyard millet (SEED COAT)	Rich in phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca)-osteo-malacia in adults, rickets in children	^[Citation61]
Phyto-sterols	b-sito sterol, campestrol, stigmasterol	Proso, foxtail millet	Prevents CVDs, heart attack, stroke	^[Citation62]

Figure 3. Antioxidant behavior of the bio-active compound catechin.

Figure 4. Represents the antioxidant behavior of sinapic acid.

Figure 5. Polyphenols in millets and their effect on diabetes-related factors.^[73]

Figure 6. Steps involved in the processing of the millet.

Figure 7. Inference on nutritional properties changes during different processing methods adapted from.^[20]

Figure 8. Nutritional changes on the processed millet after popping and malting.

Table 7. Millet-based dishes.

Types of food	Dish	Millets used	References
Whole grain food	Kichadi, porridge	Little millet, finger millet, kodo millet, sorghum.	^[Citation81]
Foods made from flour	Chapatis, dosa, idli, dumplings, couscous	Pearl millet, finger millet, foxtail millet, and little millet	^[Citation31,Citation82]
Alcoholic beverages	Opaque beers, busa, chhang, katikalla	Pearl millet, finger millet, proso millet	^[Citation72,Citation83]
Non-alcoholic beverages	Togwa, oskikundu	Finger millet, pearl millet and malted sorghum	^[Citation29,Citation84]

Figure 9. Represents the multifunctional uses of millet.

Figure 10. Represents the strategies for Uplifting millet.

Giridharan, B.; Sakthivel, V.; Vedamanickam, R.; Anandan, P.; Bupesh, G.; Vasanth, S. Study of Millet and Non-Millet Diet on Diabetics and Associated Metabolic Syndrome Antiinflammatory Drugs View Project Study of Millet and Non-Millet Diet on Diabetics and Associated Metabolic Syndrome, Biomedicineonline.Org Biomedicine. 2020.

 Google Scholar

Krishnamoorthy, S.; Kunjithapatham, S.; Manickam, L. Traditional Indian Breakfast (Idli and Dosa) with Enhanced Nutritional Content Using Millets. Nutr. Diet. 2013, 70, 241–246. DOI: 10.1111/1747-0080.12020.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumar, A.; Tomer, V.; Kaur, A.; Kumar, V.; Gupta, K. Millets: A Solution to Agrarian and Nutritional Challenges. Agric. Food Secur. 2018a, 7(1), 31. DOI: 10.1186/s40066-018-0183-3.

 Google Scholar

Choudhary, N.; Dhingra, N.; Gacem, A.; Yadav, V. K.; Verma, R. K.; Choudhary, M.; Bhardwaj, U.; Chundawat, R. S.; Alqahtani, M. S.; Gaur, R. K., et al. Towards Further Understanding the Applications of Endophytes: Enriched Source of Bioactive Compounds and Bio Factories for Nanoparticles. Front Plant Sci. 2023, 14. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1193573.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumar, S.; Bhati, J.; Saha, A.; Lal, S. B.; Pandey, P. K.; Mishra, D. C.; Farooqi, M. S.; Kumar, A.; Chaturvedi, K. K.; Rai, A. CerealEstdb: A Comprehensive Resource for Abiotic Stress-Responsive Annotated ESTs with Predicted Genes, Gene Ontology, and Metabolic Pathways in Major Cereal Crops. Front. Genet. 2022, 13. DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.842868.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Dykes, L.; Rooney, L. W. Sorghum and Millet Phenols and Antioxidants. J. Cereal Sci. 2006, 44(3), 236–251. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2006.06.007.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lambert, J. D.; Hong, J.; Yang, G.; Liao, J.; Yang, C. S. Inhibition of Carcinogenesis by Polyphenols: Evidence from Laboratory Investigations. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 81(1), 284S–291S. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/81.1.284S.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lata, C.; Gupta, S.; Prasad, M. Foxtail Millet: A Model Crop for Genetic and Genomic Studies in Bioenergy Grasses. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2013, 33(3), 328–343. DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2012.716809.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lee, S. H.; Chung, I.-M.; Cha, Y.-S.; Park, Y. Millet Consumption Decreased Serum Concentration of Triglyceride and C-Reactive Protein but Not Oxidative Status in Hyperlipidemic Rats. Nutr. Res. 2010, 30(4), 290–296. DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2010.04.007.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lerner, A.; Freire de Carvalho, J.; Kotrova, A.; Shoenfeld, Y. Gluten-Free Diet Can Ameliorate the Symptoms of Non-Celiac Autoimmune Diseases. Nutr. Rev. 2022, 80(3), 525–543. DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuab039.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Liaqat, I.; Ali, N. M.; Arshad, N.; Sajjad, S.; Rashid, F.; Hanif, U.; Ara, C.; Ulfat, M.; Andleeb, S.; Awan, U. F., et al. Gut Dysbiosis, Inflammation and Type 2 Diabetes in Mice Using Synthetic Gut Microbiota from Diabetic Humans. Brazilian J. Biol. 2023, 83. DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.242818.

 Google Scholar

Maharajan, T.; Antony Ceasar, S.; Ajeesh Krishna, T. P.; Ignacimuthu, S. Finger Millet [Eleusine Coracana (L.) Gaertn]: An Orphan Crop with a Potential to Alleviate the Calcium Deficiency in the Semi-Arid Tropics of Asia and Africa. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2021, 5. DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.684447.

 Google Scholar

Maitra, S.; Patro, T. S. S. K.; Reddy, A.; Hossain, A.; Pramanick, B.; Brahmachari, K.; Prasad, K.; Santosh, D. T.; Mandal, M.; Shankar, T., et al. Chapter 9 - Brown Top Millet (Brachiaria Ramosa L. Stapf; Panicum Ramosum L.)—A Neglected and Smart Crop in Fighting Against Hunger and Malnutrition. In Neglected and Underutilized Crops; Farooq, M. Siddique, K. H. M. Eds;Academic Press:2023; pp. 221–245. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-90537-4.00012-0

 Google Scholar

Majid, A.; G, P. C. Millet Derived Bioactive Peptides: A Review on Their Functional Properties and Health Benefits. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 60(19), 3342–3351. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1686342.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Malathi, B.; Appaji, C.; Rajender Reddy, G.; Dattatri, K.; Sudhakar, N. Growth Pattern of Millets in India. Indian J. Agric. Res. 2016, 50(4), 382–386. DOI: 10.18805/ijare.v50i4.11257.

 Google Scholar

Meena, R. P.; Joshi, D.; Bisht, J. K.; Kant, L. Global Scenario of Millets Cultivation. In Millets and Millet Technology; Kumar, A., Tripathi, M. K., Joshi, D. Kumar, V., Eds.; Springer Singapore: Singapore, 2021; pp. 33–50. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-0676-2_2.

 Google Scholar

Muthamilarasan, M.; Prasad, M. Small Millets for Enduring Food Security Amidst Pandemics. Trends Plant Sci. 2021, 26(1), 33–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2020.08.008.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nambiar, V. S.; Sareen, N.; Shahu, T.; Desai, R.; Dhaduk, J. J.; Nambiar, S. Potential Functional Implications of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum Glaucum) in Health and Disease, J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 2011, 1(10), 62–67.

 Google Scholar

Nanje Gowda, N. A.; Siliveru, K.; Vara Prasad, P. V.; Bhatt, Y.; Netravati, B. P.; Gurikar, C. Modern Processing of Indian Millets: A Perspective on Changes in Nutritional Properties. Foods. 2022, 11(4), 499. DOI: 10.3390/foods11040499.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Nishizawa, N.; Fudamoto, Y. The Elevation of Plasma Concentration of High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Mice Fed with Protein from Proso Millet. Biosci. Biotechnol., Biochem. 1995, 59(2), 333–335. DOI: 10.1271/bbb.59.333.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ogden, A. J.; Abdali, S.; Engbrecht, K. M.; Zhou, M.; Handakumbura, P. P. Distinct Preflowering Drought Tolerance Strategies of Sorghum Bicolor Genotype RTx430 Revealed by Subcellular Protein Profiling. IJMS. 2020, 21(24), 9706–9717. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249706.

 Google Scholar

Oghbaei, M.; Prakash, J.; Yildiz, F. Effect of Primary Processing of Cereals and Legumes on Its Nutritional Quality: A Comprehensive Review. Cogent. Food Agric. 2016, 2(1). DOI: 10.1080/23311932.2015.1136015.

 Google Scholar

Paschapur, A. U.; Joshi, D.; Mishra, K. K.; Kant, L.; Kumar, V.; Kumar, A. Millets for Life: A Brief Introduction. In Millets and Millet Technology; Kumar, A., Tripathi, M. K., Joshi, D. Kumar, V., Eds.; Springer Singapore: Singapore, 2021; pp. 1–32. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-0676-2_1.

 Google Scholar

Popova, A.; Mihaylova, D. Antinutrients in Plant-Based Foods: A Review. Open Biotechnol. J. 2019, 13(1), 68–76. DOI: 10.2174/1874070701913010068.

 Google Scholar

Rakha, A.; Umar, N.; Rabail, R.; Butt, M. S.; Kieliszek, M.; Hassoun, A.; Aadil, R. M. Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Allergic Potential of Dietary Flavonoids: A Review. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2022, 156, 113945. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113945.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ren, X.; Yin, R.; Hou, D.; Xue, Y.; Zhang, M.; Diao, X.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, J.; Hu, J.; Hu, X., et al. The Glucose-Lowering Effect of Foxtail Millet in Subjects with Impaired Glucose Tolerance: A Self-Controlled Clinical Trial. Nutrients. 2018, 10(10), 1509. DOI: 10.3390/nu10101509.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Renganathan, V. G.; Vanniarajan, C.; Karthikeyan, A.; Ramalingam, J. Barnyard Millet for Food and Nutritional Security: Current Status and Future Research Direction. Front. Genet. 2020, 11. DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.00500.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Riccardi, G.; Rivellese, A. A. Effects of Dietary Fiber and Carbohydrate on Glucose and Lipoprotein Metabolism in Diabetic Patients. Diabetes Care. 1991, 14(12), 1115–1125. DOI: 10.2337/diacare.14.12.1115.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rodríguez-Ramiro, I.; Martín, M. Á.; Ramos, S.; Bravo, L.; Goya, L. Comparative Effects of Dietary Flavanols on Antioxidant Defences and Their Response to Oxidant-Induced Stress on Caco2 Cells. Eur. J. Nutr. 2011, 50(5), 313–322. DOI: 10.1007/s00394-010-0139-2.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kobayashi, E. H.; Suzuki, T.; Funayama, R.; Nagashima, T.; Hayashi, M.; Sekine, H.; Tanaka, N.; Moriguchi, T.; Motohashi, H.; Nakayama, K.; et al. Nrf2 Suppresses Macrophage Inflammatory Response by Blocking Proinflammatory Cytokine Transcription. Nat. Commun. 2016, 7(1). DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11624.

 Google Scholar

Rotela, S.; Borkar, S.; Borah, D. A. Health Benefits of Millets and Their Significance as Functional Food: A Review. Pharma. Innov. 2021, 10(5), 158–162. DOI: 10.22271/tpi.2021.v10.i5c.6192.

 Google Scholar

Ryan, E.; Galvin, K.; O’Connor, T. P.; Maguire, A. R.; O’Brien, N. M. Phytosterol, Squalene, Tocopherol Content and Fatty Acid Profile of Selected Seeds, Grains, and Legumes. Plant Foods Human Nutr. 2007, 62(3), 85–91. DOI: 10.1007/s11130-007-0046-8.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sang, S.; Idehen, E.; Zhao, Y.; Chu, Y. Emerging Science on Whole Grain Intake and Inflammation. Nutr. rev. 2020, 78(Supplement_1), 21–28. DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuz079.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Sanjana Reddy, P. Pearl Millet, Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. Millets Sorghum. 2017, 49–86. DOI: 10.1002/9781119130765.ch2.

 Google Scholar

Sanjana Reddy, P.; Satyavathi, C. T.; Khandelwal, V.; Patil, H. T.; Gupta, P. C.; Sharma, L. D.; Mungra, K. D.; Singh, S. P.; Narasimhulu, R.; Bhadarge, H. H.; et al. Performance and Stability of Pearl Millet Varieties for Grain Yield and Micronutrients in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions of India. Front Plant Sci. 2021, 12, 12. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.670201.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Triki, T.; Tlahig, S.; Benabderrahim, M. A.; Elfalleh, W.; Mabrouk, M.; Bagues, M.; Yahia, H.; Belhouchette, K.; Guasmi, F.; Loumerem, M., et al. Variation in Phenolic, Mineral, Dietary Fiber, and Antioxidant Activity Across Southern Tunisian Pearl Millet Germplasm. J. Food Qual. 2022, 2022, 1–11. DOI: 10.1155/2022/1437306.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zaveri, N. T. Green Tea and Its Polyphenolic Catechins: Medicinal Uses in Cancer and Noncancer Applications. Life Scie. 2006, 78(18), 2073–2080. DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.006.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kumar, S.; Kotwal, N. Millets (Shrianna) and Lifestyle Diseases: A Healing Touch. Med J Armed Forces India, 2023, 79(3), 249–252. DOI: 10.1016/j.mjafi.2023.04.001.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Taylor, J. R. N.; Emmambux, M. N. 6 - Gluten-Free Foods and Beverages from Millets. In Gluten-Free Cereal Products and Beverages; Arendt, E. K. Dal Bello, F., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, 2008; 119–V. DOI: 10.1016/B978-012373739-7.50008-3.

 Google Scholar

Tagade, A.; Sawarkar, A. N. Valorization of Millet Agro-Residues for Bioenergy Production Through Pyrolysis: Recent Inroads, Technological Bottlenecks, Possible Remedies, and Future Directions. Bioresources Technol. 2023, 384, 129335. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2023.129335.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kitabatake, N.; Gimbi, D. M.; Oi, Y. Traditional Non-Alcoholic Beverage, Togwa, in East Africa, Produced from Maize Flour and Germinated Finger Millet. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2003, 54(6), 447–455. DOI: 10.1080/09637480120092053.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Senghor, Y.; Balde, A. B.; Manga, A. G. B.; Affholder, F.; Letourmy, P.; Bassene, C.; Kanfany, G.; Ndiaye, M.; Couedel, A.; Leroux, L. et al. Intercropping Millet with Low-Density Cowpea Improves Millet Productivity for Low and Medium N Input in Semi-Arid Central Senegal. Heliyon. 2023, 9(7), e17680. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17680.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Data availability statement

All the data are included within the article only.