Teacher Motivation Nuances: A Latent Profile Analysis of Personal Utility Value, Civic Mindedness, and Future Professional Development

Abstract

This study examined motivators of preservice teachers (PSTs) for pursuing a teaching career. We used latent profile analysis to identify four profiles of PSTs based on their scores on personal utility value, civic mindedness, and intentions for future professional engagement. Using logistic regression, we identified motivational differences among PST content areas and latent profiles. We found that early childhood education students had higher motivation scores than students from other certification areas across different profiles. We discussed recommendations related to these findings for teacher education programs, especially for identity development and nurturing the civic motivations of PSTs who aspire to use their teaching to improve their communities.

Midway through the spring 2023 semester, a preservice teacher (PST) from my¹ teaching methods of social studies course requested to meet to discuss her fieldwork placement. This PST was completing her first set of fieldwork hours set in a classroom during her teacher education coursework. She was matched with a social studies teacher in the city’s most elite public high school. This placement was coveted by her peers because of the reputation of the school and their assumptions about the students. When we met, I was surprised to learn she was distressed following the initial visit with her host teacher. In her recounting of their conversation, the host teacher informed her that unless she landed a job at a top-tier school like the one at which he worked—an unlikely outcome in his estimation—she would be doomed to be unhappy in her career. Neighborhood schools in the city were unsafe, and no real learning occurs in those classrooms, according to this teacher. But what truly shook her convictions was not learning that she would be unlikely to secure a teaching position at an elite public high school; rather, it was that this teacher’s cynical view of the teaching profession ran contrary to why she chose teaching as a career: it appealed to her civic minded values.

A key component of this paper and an important aspect of this vignette is that this PST exhibited high levels of what we have called civic mindedness (defined below; T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023). Unlike her host teacher, this PST was drawn to teaching because of an explicit desire to help students better their communities. She was not motivated by summers off, working in classrooms with limited behavioral issues, or other personal values (Richardson & Watt, 2005, 2006). Her desire to improve her community by increasing her own civic commitment through teaching is why she chose social studies as her certification area. To have her raison d‘être challenged so blatantly reinforced her motivation to become a teacher.

This story highlights radically diverging motives for engaging in the teaching profession. These motivational differences influence orientations by which a teacher will engage in the field, both in the short and long term. In this study, we explore further the motivational profiles of PSTs and how their civic or other related motivations, such as the fringe benefits related to teaching (personal utility value) and intentions for future professional development, are impacted by the content area a teacher education student chooses. Studying the motivational profiles of teachers offers an opportunity to predict and better understand how different types of motivation may influence and orient students once they enter the field (Bergey & Ranellucci, 2021). The research questions guiding this study are (a) How many latent profiles are present and to what extent do they describe PSTs’ motivation to pursue a teaching career on personal utility value, civic mindedness, and intention for professional engagement? (RQ1); and (b) To what extent can latent profiles be predicted by academic content area? (RQ2)

Theoretical framework

FIT-Choice framework

Understanding how civic mindedness and other motivations influence an individual’s decision to pursue a teaching career is critical. The Factors Influencing Teaching (FIT-) Choice model, an adaptation of Eccles and Wigfield’s (2002) expectancy-value theory (EVT) framework of achievement motivation, provides a framework to contextualize these factors. The central tenets of EVT include an individual’s expectation for success in a task (i.e., their confidence or self-efficacy to be successful; Bandura, 1997) and their level of subjective value for that task. The subjective value aspect can be subdivided into four categories: interest-enjoyment value (extent to which an individual inherently enjoys or is interested in the activity), attainment value (extent to which an activity resonates with an individual’s identity), utility value (extent to which an activity is important to the individual for a future goal), and cost (extent to which an individual could be doing some other activity). Expectancy for success and subjective task value are all influenced by socializing agents from the individual’s sociocultural background.

The FIT-Choice framework maps on to components of EVT in the following ways (Richardson & Watt, 2005, 2006; Watt & Richardson, 2007). First, self-perception of teaching ability refers to the level to which an individual feels confident in their teaching ability. This component maps onto the expectancy for success component of EVT.

Second, subjective task values take a different form in the FIT-Choice framework compared to EVT. In the FIT-Choice framework, subjective values of teaching are intrinsic value (closely related to interest-enjoyment value in EVT), personal utility value (a fringe perk related to pursuing a teaching career that has personal, extrinsic benefits), social utility value (the extent to which an individual is motivated to pursue teaching to help others), and fallback career (pursuing teaching following a job change or using teaching as a safe employment option).

Third, is task demand (perceptions of the demands of a teaching career [e.g., a heavy workload]) and task return (perceptions of what can—or cannot—be expected in return from a teaching career [e.g., teaching as a high-status profession]). Pursuing a teaching career becomes a cost when task demands outweigh task returns (Watt & Richardson, 2007).

Last, each component of the FIT-Choice framework is developed as a function of socialization influences, e.g., prior teaching and learning experience and role models. This reflects the socialization influences in EVT. Taken together, the components (antecedents, task demands and return, self-perceptions of teaching ability, subjective values, and pursuing teaching as a fallback career) will theoretically predict whether an individual will pursue a career in teaching.

Epistemic value

Epistemic value, a new addition to the FIT-Choice framework, has been gaining traction (see T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023; Torsney et al., 2017, 2019). We added the concept of epistemic value to the FIT-Choice framework following Fokkens-Bruinsma and Canrinus (2012) and Fray and Gore’s (2018) suggestion to consider measures of knowledge and skill transfer between teachers and their students when considering why PSTs are motivated to pursue a teaching career.

Epistemic value as contextualized within the FIT-Choice framework has been understood as a motivator for PSTs who see civic engagement as the expected outcome of their future students’ actions, activities, and acquired knowledge. That is, the PSTs who value knowledge, reliable knowledge creation (Chinn et al., 2014), and the possible outcomes of that knowledge for their students imagine teaching as a route to civic improvement. This value proposition motivates them to enter the teaching profession.

Civic mindedness

In our previous research (T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023), we posited conceptual overlap among items related to social utility value and epistemic value, which we defined as “civic mindedness.” It can be understood as “a value for engaging in or being motivated to pursue the teaching profession to improve the common good [social utility value] and for reasons that may describe the knowledge students learned [epistemic value] that could be instrumental to their civic engagement” (Torsney & Patterson, 2023, p. 24). Ferguson Patrick et al. (2014) and Robbins et al. (2003), explained that “civic motivation,” what we call civic mindedness, is nuanced and may emerge differently among teacher education content areas. That is, PSTs studying in the humanities may be more motivated to pursue a teaching career if they are civically minded and want the same for their future students. This could also be the case for PSTs pursuing early childhood education (ECE), who are also highly motivated by social utility value (Dündar, 2014).

Future professional engagement

We are conceptualizing future professional engagement in this study as a function of a PSTs’ possible selves (Torsney & Patterson, 2023). “Possible selves” is defined as future representations of oneself that stem from their self perceptions in past contexts and predictions of themselves in future contexts (Markus & Ruvolo, 1989; Richardson & Watt, 2010). Future selves can be motivating for the current self (Markus & Nurius, 1986; Torsney & Patterson, 2023). For example, if a PST has positive repeated experiences at an in-school placement, they may internalize those experiences and be motivated to pursue a similar role. Their self-concept—an individual’s perception of themselves in regard to achieving their ideal self in concert with their social environment (Markus & Nurius, 1986)—develops holistically and creates continuity between their current and future selves.

Accordingly, understanding possible selves as a dynamic psychological process that incorporates social interaction, hopes and fears, and memories can lead to future motivation (Markus & Nurius, 1986). This process is especially relevant for teacher education and future motivation (Richardson & Watt, 2010; Torsney & Patterson, 2023). Therefore, in this study we are focused not only on personal utility value and civic mindedness, but also on PSTs’ future selves.

Literature review

Teacher motivation: an overview

The study of teacher motivation is a dynamic and evolving field of educational research and educational psychology. Summarizing the literature offers a nuanced understanding of the particular way in which teacher motivation emerges. A recent systematic review of teacher motivation studies from 2007 to 2016 showed three main trends among different cultural contexts that help to inform our study: (a) studies of altruistic (i.e., social utility values; Watt & Richardson, 2007), extrinsic, and intrinsic motivation, (b) studies of less traditional types of teacher motivation (e.g., adaptive and maladaptive motivations), and (c) studies that use theoretically sound conceptual frameworks of teacher motivation, such as the FIT-Choice Model (Watt & Richardson, 2007). This paper focused on the first and third trends.

According to Fray and Gore (2018), altruistic motives for teaching included providing a “service to others” (see Osguthorpe & Sanger, 2013; Yüce et al., 2013), making a difference in students’ lives (see Afrianto, 2014; Struyven et al., 2013), contributing to society (see Afrianto, 2014; Azman, 2013; Jungert et al., 2014), and answering a calling (see Chong & Low, 2009; Osguthorpe & Sanger, 2013). Recent studies have introduced a civic mindedness construct (see T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023), which can be seen as another form of altruistic motivation.

Moreover, intrinsic motivations for pursuing a teaching career include having a passion for teaching or a passion for a particular content area (Struyven et al., 2013), interest in teaching (Heinz, 2015), a personal fit with the profession (Chong & Low, 2009), and enjoyment in working with young people (Balyer & Ozcan, 2014; Weiss & Kiel, 2013). Extrinsic motivations, closely related to personal utility values (Watt & Richardson, 2007), include work-life balance (Struyven et al., 2013; Weiss & Kiel, 2013), job security (Jungert et al., 2014), and salary (Balyer & Ozcan, 2014; Cheung & Yuen, 2016). Extrinsic motivations, however, may change depending on the career stage (Ponnock et al., 2018).

Recent studies using robust frameworks like the FIT-Choice model and advanced modeling techniques such as structural equation modeling have explored connections between PSTs’ motivations and their intentions for future professional engagement. Specifically, Torsney et al. (2019) and Torsney and Patterson (2023) examined this within the social studies education context. Torsney et al. (2019) revealed that social utility value predicted planned effort, persistence and career satisfaction, intentions for future professional development, and future leadership pursuits. An epistemic value composite also predicted planned effort and intentions for professional development and leadership. Furthermore, Torsney and Patterson (2023) found that civic mindedness predicted all aspects of future professional development intentions. Civic mindedness also mediated the relationship between pursuing a degree in middle grades education (grades 4-8) and all professional engagement outcomes, except for perceived persistence in the field, which was nearly significant at the p = .05 level. This exploration of civic mindedness within teacher motivation is an emerging field.

Civic mindedness: a new addition to the field of teacher motivation

The anecdote at the beginning of this paper spoke to the importance of studying civic mindedness as a motivation for PSTs to enter the teaching profession. We are not the first researchers to study how teachers position themselves as civic actors (see Castro, 2013; Martin, 2008, 2010; Mathews & Dilworth, 2008; Reichert & Torney-Purta, 2019; Rubin & Justice, 2005). Much of this research has focused on social studies teachers since they teach the subject area most directly connected with preparing young people for citizenship in a pluralistic democracy (Fallace, 2008; National Council for the Social Studies, 1994; Nelson, 2001; Parker, 1991; Stanley, 2001). Specifically, much of the previous work has examined how teachers construct the role identity of citizen through the context of their work in public schools.

Researchers have used an array of frameworks and methodologies to understand the civic identities of teachers (T. Patterson et al., 2022). Fundamentally, PST motivation is a function of current and emerging teacher identity (Garner & Kaplan, 2019). Together, these studies present a complex picture of the civic identities of teachers and the implications for their classroom practices. For instance, as implied by our introductory story, a subset of teachers has expressed civic priorities that could broadly be described as critiquing civic mindedness (Blevins et al., 2020; Magill & Salinas, 2019; Manfra, 2009; Martell & Stevens, 2017; Mathews & Dilworth, 2008; Parkhouse, 2018). Perhaps because critical civic identities are not the norm in the teaching profession (Castro, 2013; Martell & Stevens, 2017), researchers have examined the experiences that have inspired these teachers’ commitments to liberatory pedagogies (T. Patterson et al., 2022).

Other researchers, whose work underpins ours, have categorized teachers’ civic identities using Westheimer and Kahne’s (2004) popular citizenship typology (see Doppen et al., 2008; N. Patterson et al., 2012; T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021). Across their three citizen types—personally responsible, participatory, and justice oriented—many teachers express values and dispositions most closely aligned with personally responsible citizens (Doppen et al., 2008; N. Patterson et al., 2012). This finding is cause for some consternation, as the personally responsible citizen is one focused on their individual actions (e.g., following laws, recycling, paying taxes, etc.) and largely disinterested in community building, social justice, and other prosocial dispositions. Our research on civic mindedness has added nuance to this argument when examining PSTs’ motivations according to their chosen certification area (T. Patterson & Torsney 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023). In our previous research, we found that teachers from all certification areas exhibited some level of civic mindedness (all group means ≥ 5.55 on a seven-point Likert scale), which showed pro-community outcomes, both in terms of knowledge creation and community building, for PSTs’ future students.

Methodology

This study extends our research on civic mindedness as a motivator for entering the teaching profession (T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023) using latent profile analysis (LPA) (Bergey & Ranellucci, 2021; Lohbeck & Frenzel, 2022). We sought to explore three critical aspects of teacher motivation: personal utility value, civic mindedness, and intention for future professional engagement.

Participants

A total of 218 participants were selected for this study. All participants, who came from a range of certification areas, attended a teacher education program at a large urban university in the mid-Atlantic region in the United States. Participant information can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1. Participant Demographics

Variable	n	%
Content area
Business/career/technical education	3	1.4
Early childhood education (ECE)	87	39.9
Middle grades education	20	9.2
Secondary education English	29	13.3
Secondary education mathematics	11	5
Secondary education science	17	7.8
Secondary education social studies	40	18.3
Secondary education world languages	11	5
Racial demographics
Asian	17	8
Black	24	11.1
Hispanic	4	2
White	164	75.4
Other	8	3.5
Other demographics
Age (Mean)	24.3
Female	134	61.4

Measures

Measures were derived from the short-form FIT-Choice questionnaire (Watt & Richardson, 2007) and continued our previous studies (T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023). Subscales from the FIT-Choice questionnaire typically include items measuring latent constructs for social influences, task demands and returns, self-perceptions of teaching ability, utility values (intrinsic, personal, and social), and teaching as a fallback career (Richardson & Watt, 2006; Watt & Richardson, 2007). The short form version of the FIT-Choice questionnaire also includes items related to intentions for future professional development and engagement. For this study, we used items from the following subscales: personal utility value (e.g., I chose to become a teacher because teaching will be a secure job; α = .80 [good reliability]); civic mindedness (e.g., I chose to become a teacher because preparing students to make a social contribution should be the most important part of a teacher’s job; α = .67 [adequate reliability; Ursachi et al., 2015]); and intentions for future professional engagement (e.g., To what extent do you aim to undertake further professional development?; α = .75; good reliability).

Items for each subscale were used to create composite variables in our analyses.

Procedure

To recruit participants, the first author contacted instructors of teacher education courses, (e.g., early childhood education methods). During class, participants completed the FIT-Choice questionnaire, which was administered by either the instructor or the first author. The questionnaire took approximately 10 min. The study was approved by the authors’ Institutional Review Board (protocol #23149).

Data analysis plan

We used descriptive statistics to obtain a description of the sample (see Table 2). To answer RQ1, we conducted an LPA to identify clusters of participants across the latent variables (Bergey & Ranellucci, 2021; Lohbeck & Frenzel, 2022 for similar designs). LPA is a person-centered approach that identifies qualitatively distinct subgroups of individuals within a population based on quantitative characteristics (Hagenaars & McCutcheon, 2002). LPA assumes that latent classes have meaningful patterns, unlike other clustering techniques, such as cluster analysis (Weller et al., 2020). Using LPA allows researchers to understand the nuances of individual differences within a population. For instance, in this study we explored how different subgroups of PSTs vary in their motivations for becoming future teachers.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Profiles and Content Area

Variable
Profile membership
	Mean	SD	N	α
Personal utility value				0.8
Profile 1	4.40	1.06	21
Profile 2	6.42	0.48	43
Profile 3	2.14	0.66	38
Profile 4	4.62	0.72	111
Civic mindedness				0.67
Profile 1	4.55	0.67	21
Profile 2	6.47	0.38	43
Profile 3	6.00	0.66	38
Profile 4	5.97	0.56	111
Professional engagement				0.75
Profile 1	5.01	0.61	21
Profile 2	6.50	0.50	43
Profile 3	6.26	0.57	38
Profile 4	6.20	0.57	111
Content area
	Mean	SD	N
Personal utility value
ECE	4.55	1.58	83
Middle grades	4.98	1.78	20
English	4.83	1.30	29
Mathematics and science	4.37	1.42	27
Social studies	4.14	1.35	40
Civic mindedness
ECE	6.04	0.65	83
Middle grades	6.26	0.52	20
English	5.94	0.68	29
Mathematics and science	5.55	0.97	27
Social studies	5.90	0.76	40
Professional engagement
ECE	6.32	0.62	83
Middle grades	6.34	0.59	20
English	5.94	0.83	29
Mathematics and science	5.87	0.74	27
Social studies	6.07	0.62	40

We used the tidyLPA package (Rosenberg et al., 2021) in Jamovi (version 2.3.21; The Jamovi Project, 2022) for our analysis. We determined the model best fit based on Akaike information criterion (AIC), Approximate Weight of Evidence (AWE), Bayesian information criterion (BIC), Classification Likelihood Criterion (CLC), Kullback Information Criterion (KIC), and entropy scores. Cutoffs were determined based on best practices outlined by Weller et al. (2020), which explained that final profile solutions are dependent on the theoretical explanations of the study. These researchers explained that final profile solutions are typically chosen when individual profile sizes account for more than 5% of the sample, and the overall entropy score is higher than .60. We satisfied these criteria.

To answer RQ2, we conducted a logistic regression analysis to predict which latent profile students from different content areas might fall. Content areas were entered into the analysis as a factor with ECE being used as the reference group. ECE fits as the reference group for this study in that it is the largest program at the research institution and has the largest proportion of students in the sample. Also, PSTs pursuing ECE also have high levels of social utility value (Dündar, 2014), a critical aspect of our study and the teacher motivation literature. The content areas used as predictors in the model included middle grades education, a combination of secondary math and science education, secondary English education, and secondary social studies education.

All assumptions of regression were met for this analysis.

Results

RQ1

After comparing profile solutions of two to nine profiles, we decided on a four-profile solution based on the cutoff criteria mentioned above: AIC = 1644, AWE = 1854, BIC = 1705, CLC = 1610, KIC = 1655, and Entropy = .70 (see Table 3). We also chose the four-profile solution in part due to the distribution of cases per profile. We argue that this profile solution also made theoretical sense. If we had chosen a five-profile solution, for example, which had slightly lower cutoff criteria, we would have had one profile with only 11 cases (5% of the sample). Our smallest profile had 21 cases in the four-profile solution. Figure 1 provides a visual of profile membership by construct.

Figure 1. Profile membership by construct.

Table 3. Profile Comparisons

Profile	LogLik	AIC	AWE	BIC	CLC	KIC	Entropy
1	−848	1708	1776	1728	1698	1717	1.000
2	−817	1653	1769	1687	1635	1666	0.811
3	−809	1645	1808	1692	1619	1662	0.722
4^a	−804	1644	1854	1705	1610	1665	0.700
5	−795	1635	1891	1709	1592	1660	0.737
6	−795	1641	1945	1729	1591	1670	0.696
7	−786	1633	1983	1734	1574	1666	0.716
8	−786	1641	2038	1755	1574	1678	0.641
9	−784	1644	2088	1771	1569	1685	0.664

^aBold indicates profile solution used.

The four-profile structure consists of the following groups. Profile 1, which we refer to as moderate engagers (n = 21) consists of the following scores: personal utility value (M = 4.40, SD = 1.06), civic mindedness (M = 4.55, SD = 0.70), and professional engagement (M = 5.01, SD = 0.61). Profile 2, which we refer to as high engagers with high personal utility (n = 43) consists of the following scores: personal utility value (M = 6.42, SD = 0.48), civic mindedness (M = 6.47, SD = 0.38), and professional engagement (M = 6.50, SD = 0.50). Profile 3, which we refer to as high engagers with low personal utility (n = 38) consists of the following scores: personal utility value (M = 2.14, SD = 0.66), civic mindedness (M = 6.00, SD = 0.66), and professional engagement (M = 6.26, SD = 0.57). Profile 4, which we refer to as moderate to high engagers (n = 111) consists of the following scores: personal utility value (M = 4.62, SD = 0.72), civic mindedness (M = 5.97, SD = 0.56), and professional engagement (M = 6.20, SD = 0.566).

RQ2

We identified two significant logistic regression models (see Table 4): for Profile 1 (moderate engagers) and Profile 2 (high engagers with high personal utility). For Profile 1 (X²[4] = 14.4, p = .006, R²_N = .15), participants pursuing secondary English education (β  = 1.99, p = .046, odds ratio = 4.11) and math and science education (β  = 2.86, p = .004, odds ratio = 6.91) were significantly different from participants pursuing ECE. These results indicate that those pursuing secondary English education are approximately four-times higher to be in Profile 1 than participants pursuing ECE. Similarly, those pursuing secondary mathematics and science education are approximately seven-times higher to be in Profile 1 than participants pursuing ECE.

Table 4. Significant Logistic Regression Models

Model	B	SE	Beta	p	Odds	R^²N	X^2 (df)
Profile 1						.15	14.4**(4)
Intercept
Middle grades	−15.58	1458.51	−0.01	.991	1.71e-7
English	1.42	0.71	1.99*	.046	4.11
Mathematics and science	1.93	0.68	2.86**	.004	6.91
Social studies	0.47	0.79	0.60	.551	1.60
Profile 2						0.07	9.30*(4)
Intercept	−1.08	0.25	−4.29	< .001	0.34
Middle grades	0.46	0.53	0.87	.384	1.59
English	−0.06	0.50	−0.13	.901	1.59
Mathematics and science	−0.67	0.60	−1.12	.265	0.51
Social studies	−1.43	0.65	−2.20*	.028	0.24

*∼p < .05. **∼p < .01.

For Profile 2 (X²[4] = 9.30, p = .054, R²_N = .07), participants pursuing secondary social studies education (β = −2.20, p = .028, odds ratio = .24) were significantly different from participants pursuing ECE. These results indicate that the odds of being in Profile 2 are approximately four-times higher for those pursuing ECE than for those pursuing secondary social studies education.

Discussion

Seen through the lens of EVT (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) and the FIT-Choice framework (Watt & Richardson, 2007), our findings indicate that individuals pursuing teacher certification present varying motivational profiles. This study aimed to explore the nuances related to personal, civic, and future reasons that motivate people to pursue teaching as a career. Using LPA to assess the question of PSTs’ motivation for pursuing a teaching career reveals nuances across certification areas (Bergey & Ranellucci, 2021). These nuances can point to perceptions about what a particular content area does and whom it serves. For instance, ECE PSTs, our reference group for our regression analysis, had lower odds of being in Profile 1 than secondary English education and mathematics and science education, which was revelatory in terms of motivations for pursuing a teaching career. Teacher education programs should have these differences in motivation between subject areas on their radar.

Furthermore, ECE PSTs were also shown to have higher odds of being in Profile 2 than secondary social studies teachers. Our findings follow our previous findings (Torsney et al., 2017) that showed ECE PSTs tend to be motivated by higher personal utility value than PSTs in other content areas (e.g., secondary). Moreover, Fokkens-Bruinsma and Canrinus (2014) and Dündar (2014) showed higher scores on social utility value, a component of the civic mindedness construct. While further research is needed to indicate why ECE PSTs appear civically motivated, we believe their motivation relates to the content-agnostic nature of the elementary certification. An ECE teacher has to be a jack of all trades. Previous research suggests that when choosing their certification area, ECE PSTs may not be motivated to teach in a particular content area; rather, they may be more motivated by an altruistic desire to help children develop into contributing members of society (Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2014; Dündar, 2014; Watt & Richardson, 2007).

Considering how each motivational profile translates to teaching practice is outside the scope of this paper, but we did demonstrate that content area matters for motivation. Teacher education programs can and should leverage this kind of knowledge for self-studies of their own programs. For instance, traditionally less civically minded content areas, e.g., mathematics and science (T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021), might need to be taught about the value of developing students who are civically engaged. Highly developed pedagogical content knowledge is critical for teaching (Pourdavood & Yan, 2021): we concede that much. It is not, however, the be all and-end-all for how one becomes a good teacher. We argue a civic goal that develops during teacher education programs is also essential. Furthermore, teacher education programs can and should choose to promote it (T. Patterson & Torsney, 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023).

Specific recommendations for teacher education

From our findings, we have two recommendations for teacher preparation programs to enhance the experience of PSTs and support their varying motivational needs: using both psychological interventions that promote identity development and novel interventions.

First, we recommend teacher education programs should weave pedagogical interventions into coursework that would trigger PSTs’ identity development. Protocols for identity-based interventions could be aligned with the profiles that resulted from our analysis. These interventions should include (a) focused reflections based on who PSTs believe they are as future-imagined teachers—which is crucial for their motivation for entering the profession—and (b) consider prompting PST’s utility value through interventions (see Rosenzweig et al., 2022) for their future careers. Kaplan et al. (2020) characterized examples of these types of interventions as aligned with one of three theoretical perspectives: psychosocial, which focuses on identity exploration and promotes individual agency; social-psychological, which targets and links self-perceptions with specific identities; and sociocultural, which understands that identity emerges from a situated, dynamic social context.

Kaplan et al.’s (2014) PRESS model, an example of a psychosocial intervention, may encourage PSTs to reflect on their motivations to pursue teaching as a career and on their development as teachers. PRESS has been used to encourage identity exploration across a variety of contexts, including in middle school literature (Sinai et al., 2012) and mathematics (Sinai et al., 2013) classes, as well as during a college writing course (D’Antonio, 2020). The principles of the PRESS model include promoting perceived self-relevance, where students identify personal meaning between the educational content and an element of their identity; triggering identity exploration, which builds on the previous principle by inducing exploration through highlighting tensions within one’s identity; facilitating a sense of safety, which reduces perceived risk; and scaffolding identity exploration actions, which acknowledges that identity exploration is complex and may require external support, often by teachers, to make the experience meaningful.

PRESS interventions can involve individual or group reflections and role-playing aimed at exploring former, current, and future identities. We recommend that teacher preparation programs pursue interventions using the PRESS model, which focus on developing one’s identity as a teacher. The PRESS model could have helped the student featured in the beginning of this paper navigate working with a mentor teacher who does not share the same values. Given the nuanced findings from our analysis, we believe that the PRESS model could benefit teacher preparation programs that want to become more student centered and prepare PSTs for both positive and negative outcomes of entering the teaching profession.

Second, we recommend using novel pedagogies to encourage identity development vis-à-vis civic mindedness. For example, Hip Hop has been used as a means of engaging traditionally minoritized high school students at a school labeled “underperforming” in STEM subjects (Adjapong & Emdin, 2015; Emdin et al., 2016). Hip Hop pedagogy allowed historically minoritized and underachieving students, who may not see themselves represented in STEM fields, to begin to engage with content. Emdin et al. (2016) theorized that Hip Hop can bridge the gap between students’ lived experiences and identity and the STEM content, making the content relevant. In relation to civic motivations, Hip Hop embeds elements of resistance in its foundation, speaking to critical civic teacher identities (Blevins et al., 2020; Magill & Salinas, 2019; Manfra, 2009; Martell & Stevens, 2017; Mathews & Dilworth, 2008; Parkhouse, 2018). Teaching PSTs with and about Hip Hop might trigger reflections that increase their civic minded motivation and identity development. For example, Hip Hop pedagogy could prompt discussions about the relationship between the PST’s own life and aspects of the teaching curriculum, both during their teacher education program and in their future career as an in-service teacher.

Limitations and future directions

Limitations from this study are threefold. First, our sample is drawn from one urban institution in the Northeastern United States. Student demographics across the United Stated differ widely. Students from urban areas in the northeastern United States may have different motivations than students from, for example, the desert southwest.

Second, we are mining items related to civic mindedness. Although we have developed a theoretical argument and established validity for this latent construct as a function of social utility value and epistemic value (T. Patterson & Torsney 2021; Torsney & Patterson, 2023), we are still working to specify various characteristics of this construct. For example, we are in the process of establishing items based on Westheimer and Kahne’s (2004) conceptions of a “good” citizen, who is personally responsible, participatory, and justice oriented.

Last, we used only three of many latent constructs in our analysis. The three we selected addressed major components of motivations to teach (Watt & Richardson, 2007): the personal or fringe aspects of teaching; the civic utility of teaching; and future professional engagement, or what we call the projection of their future self in the profession. Future studies should integrate more of these constructs to offer an even more nuanced picture of teacher education.

Conclusion

In this study we established four profiles related to the level at which PSTs score on personal utility value, civic mindedness, and intentions for professional engagement. We also found that the certification area selected by PSTs explained the odds of being in a certain latent profile. Compared to ECE students, mathematics and science students and secondary education English students were more likely to be in the moderate engagers profile. Furthermore, ECE students were more likely to be in the high engagers with high personal utility profile compared to secondary social studies students. These results show that teaching certification area matters for a PSTs motivation to enter the teaching profession.

The conversation we described at the start of this manuscript loomed large throughout the development of this study. The student’s motivation to discuss her social studies fieldwork placement teaching suggested high levels of civic mindedness and low levels of personal utility. Foundational to her imagined role identity as an in-service teacher was the goal of using her teaching to make her community a more ideal version of itself. This motivation was challenged by a host teacher, whom she perceived to be more knowledgeable about the profession than her. As we spoke, we discussed how her teacher education could institute interventions to nurture and sustain her identity as a civically committed educator. We also wondered how many other PSTs in teacher education programs have their civic motivations challenged and dismissed, and ultimately leave the profession prematurely. Being able to measure civic mindedness and to apply targeted interventions based on profiles of PSTs would allow teacher education programs to better prepare teachers who are committed to the very purposes of public schooling in democratic societies (Cremin, 1980; Kaestle, 1983; Labraree, 1997).

Acknowledgment

Thank you to Cheryl B. Torsney, PhD, for her editorial assistance.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Refers to the experience of Tim Patterson.