Reflecting on Practice: Using Video to Promote Preservice Teacher Development of Professional Noticing and Ambitious Pedagogy

Abstract

Reflection is an important tool to help preservice teachers (PSTs) develop the skills and competence needed for effective teaching. Written and verbal reflections offer opportunities for novices to look back on their lesson implementation, but video allows them to step back “into the moment” to review their actions as they occurred in real time. This study examines PSTs’ perceptions of participating in a video reflection session embedded within a larger, integrated practicum experience as a way to increase their professional noticing of and reflection on salient teaching moments. We report on findings about the ways in which structured sessions such as this can help PSTs strive toward professional noticing of opportunities to employ ambitious pedagogy and provide implications for how this structure can support teacher development and be adapted and adopted in other teacher preparation programs.

Introduction

In the United States, educational reforms have largely been focused on “urban” settings where students and families of color and those living in poverty have often been characterized through deficit narratives (Milner, 2012a). While strides have been taken to support teachers to engage critically and with care in urban settings (e.g., Gay, 2010a; Ladson-Billings, 2021; Valenzuela, 1999), there is a continued need to support teachers in ways that will not only close opportunities gaps for students but also support educator longevity (Kinloch & Dixon, 2017; Milner, 2012b). Reflection is a necessary tool for educators seeking to engage in urban classroom spaces with diverse groups of young people, as it is central to the cultural humility that can support teachers to combat systemic marginalization and racism in schools (Haynes-Mendez & Engelsmeier, 2020). Critical forms of reflection have also been linked to teacher longevity (e.g., Yost, 2006), especially when that reflection is connected to “social collaboration” such as communities of practice with critical friends (e.g., Philp-Clark & Grieshaber, 2023). However, while reflection and critical self-examination have been widely acknowledged attributes of effective educators, there continues to be a gap in the ways the research community understands the development of these skills for preservice teachers (PSTs) (e.g., Bradbury et al., 2020; Nesje & Lejonberg, 2022).

In this paper, we, teacher educators at an urban university in the Midwest, consider the ways that PSTs approach and engage in reflective activities with the support of instructors and peers as they engage in practicum experiences in urban schools. We follow Hatton and Smith (1995), to define reflection as ‘‘deliberate thinking about action with a view to its improvement’’ (p. 35) and consider the ways that reflective teachers examine instructional decisions and make adjustments to support student learning (Cardetti & Orgnero, 2013; Noormohammadi, 2014; Slade et al., 2019). Further, we consider the ways that the success of educational reforms for students in urban settings are often dependent upon what Dewey (1933) described as “the active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it” (p. 9). Drawing from this perspective, we seek to support our teacher candidates as they learn to actively critique and adjust their practice in ways that deepen their potential to support student learning and development in urban environments. We see this kind of teaching to be connected to PSTs’ identities, recognizing that in order to serve students from diverse and historically marginalized backgrounds, our PSTs must see themselves as agentic participants in disrupting traditional power structures in schools by including students’ funds of knowledge and cultural perspectives in classrooms (e.g., Gay, 2010b; Ladson-Billings, 1995, 2014; Moll et al., 1992).

In this paper, we draw from sociocultural perspectives to examine the ways that video can act as a mediating tool (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1991) to enhance PSTs’ ability to engage in critical self-reflection on their teaching practices (van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a). Video, as a medium, allows PSTs to rewatch and reflect upon moments of their teaching with guidance from an instructor or mentor teacher (Roller, 2016; Santagata et al., 2021; van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a). Prior research on video reflections has primarily focused on practicing teachers’ noticing actions that support student learning (Gonzalez & Vargas, 2020; Jacobs et al., 2010; Santagata et al., 2021; van Es & Sherin, 2008). We see video as continuing to have potential for PSTs to not only notice their own teaching practices, but to also recognize the ways that diverse youth in urban classrooms may require differentiated support to see themselves as meaningful participants in the classroom structure (e.g., Calandra et al., 2006). In this study, we examined the ways that participation in a video reflection session embedded within a structured practicum experience in urban schools supported PSTs ability to notice salient elements of their teaching and move toward ambitious pedagogy (Windschitl et al., 2011)—where teachers notice and take up students’ ideas in meaningful ways to move classroom instruction forward (Lebak, 2022).

Literature review

The need for reflection in teacher education

Teacher preparation programs aim to develop well-equipped teachers who have the knowledge and skills to positively impact PK-12 students across educational settings. To do this, teacher educators must create purposeful experiences where PSTs’ practice reflection and recognize what works for diverse groups of students (Horn & Campbell, 2015; Milner, 2012b; van Es, Hand, et al., 2017b). Teacher preparation standards also indicate the need for PSTs to demonstrate reflective practice as part of the training process (Association for Advancing Quality in Educator Preparation [AAQEP], 2023). One of the most effective ways to bridge classroom instruction and reflective practice is through field experience opportunities where students have the opportunity to apply what they are learning in real life contexts (Emerson et al., 2018). Without these real-world practice opportunities, it is difficult for PSTs to conceptualize the complexities of teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2012; Peercy & Troyan, 2017). When PSTs experience the teaching process for themselves, they begin to reflect both in action during their instruction, and on their actions after they leave the classroom (Schön, 1983, 2001). It is of critical importance that PSTs can reflect on the ways that their instructional practices impact students, particularly in urban settings, where they may be working with diverse student populations whose identities do not always reflect the PSTs’ lived experiences.

Teacher preparation in urban settings

Ladson-Billings (2000) noted that it is not possible for one course or isolated experience to adequately prepare PSTs to thrive in urban settings. Instead, PSTs need a systematic and comprehensive model of learning that mirrors what they will experience in urban schools. Duncan-Andrade (2007) identified five pillars of effective urban teaching practices, including critically conscious purpose, duty to students and community, time for preparation, development of a “socratic sensibility” (e.g., balancing teaching confidence with the acknowledgement there is always more to learn), and the importance of trust in teacher-student relationships. Gay (2002) and others built culturally relevant pedagogy upon similar framings (e.g., Gay, 2010b; Ladson-Billings, 1995, 2009; Paris & Alim, 2014). These authors illustrate the need for teachers to develop a culturally diverse knowledge base, as well as the ability to craft and adapt curriculum in ways that are responsive and empathetic to the funds of knowledge of students in urban settings (Moll et al., 1992). Further, teachers who engage in culturally responsive and sustaining practices adopt the mindset that children’s cultural and linguistic backgrounds and competencies are assets to be leveraged in the classroom (Paris, 2012; Snyder & Staehr Fenner, 2021). This requires teacher competency, not only in content and traditionally approved pedagogical approaches, but also in centering the thinking and experiences of children at the forefront of their practice. To develop these skills, PSTs need opportunities to reflect in ways that can lead them to ambitious pedagogy, building upon students’ ideas in order to hold all students to high standards in ways that reflect their cultural knowledge and backgrounds (Windschitl et al., 2011).

Developing professional noticing and ambitious pedagogy in preservice teachers

Literature on ambitious pedagogy points to the need to foster PSTs’ ability to center students’ knowledge and ideas through the development of professional noticing (e.g., Lebak, 2022; van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a). “Learning to notice in particular ways is part of the development of expertise in a profession” (Jacobs et al., 2010, p. 170). Teacher professional noticing is defined as the extent to which teachers notice students’ thinking and use this knowledge to reflect upon and adjust their teaching practices to increase student understanding (Jacobs et al., 2010; Sherin et al., 2011) and is linked to what van Es, Cashen, et al. (2017a) and Lebak (2022) refer to as “ambitious pedagogy.” In this study, we link the notion of professional noticing to the kinds of ambitious teaching pedagogies that can support culturally responsive teaching in urban spaces (Ladson-Billings, 2014, 2021).

Professional noticing is both a common and complex element of teaching, as teachers may focus on different elements of the environment and instruction, while failing to notice important features of teaching (Jacobs et al., 2010). For PSTs in particular, learning how to notice and determining what is worth noticing is a skill that is developed over time. Fuller (1969) and Fuller and Brown (1975) developed a framework for examining the stages of reflection and noticing that novice teachers transition through, beginning with concern of self and self-adequacy, then noticing and thinking about the tasks of teaching, and eventually, focusing on concern for others (e.g., students). Over time, teachers gradually shift their focus from their own actions as teachers to how students learn and how to make adjustments that increase that learning. As Schön explained (1983, 2001), teachers can reflect on action to interpret what may seem like every day, often tacit events and map what they learn after the fact to the future, as well as reflect in action as they take note of salient moments in situ, using what they learn to shift practice in the moment. Paired together, this ability to reflect on and in action can help PSTs to transition from egocentric noticing to student-centered noticing, which facilitates their development of effective teaching practices over time.

van Es and Sherin (2021) offer an updated perspective on the construct of teacher noticing, suggesting that “a stance of inquiry,” which includes attending to and interpreting salient classroom events, is necessary to develop teachers’ ability to notice and take up ambitious pedagogy (see also Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). Rather than viewing the goal as simply adding a new focus onto their existing tendencies, van Es and Sherin (2021) posit that teachers must reprioritize the focus of their attention in classroom interactions. To help teachers develop ambitious pedagogy, effective praxis that is focused on positively affecting student learning, particularly in diverse, urban settings, they need to learn how to develop an equity lens where students are seen as sources of knowledge and find ways to unpack and examine their students’ thinking (Gonzalez & Vargas, 2020; Lebak, 2022; van Es, Hand, et al., 2017b). This requires teachers to learn how to interpret classroom events from a culturally responsive lens, rather than evaluate them (Putnam & Borko, 2000; van Es & Sherin, 2008; Windschitl et al., 2011), in ways that allow them to connect the moves they make to student reasoning and cultural backgrounds (van Es, Hand, et al., 2017b).

Video as a reflection tool for PST professional noticing

While both mini-lessons and field experiences are proven practices that prompt and promote PSTs’ reflection (Darling-Hammond, 2012; Peercy & Troyan, 2017), one of the most promising tools being used by teacher preparation programs as they adapt toward hybrid and online learning experiences is video reflection (Gold et al., 2021; Hrastinski, 2021; Walshe & Driver, 2019). The use of videos in teaching allows “the growth of committed educators who come together to examine instructional practice critically and to consider how that practice, as well as their own teaching, might improve” (Archer, 2017, p. 24). Research also shows that video-based approaches for reflection and evaluation can enhance PSTs’ ability to notice and analyze teaching and learning situations (Kosko et al., 2021; Santagata et al., 2021; Star & Strickland, 2008; van Es & Sherin, 2008, 2010). As a tool, video enhances PSTs’ abilities to reflect and provide evidence as they evaluate their teaching performance. In traditional structures, PSTs often rely on a mentor or supervisor to provide them feedback or an evaluation of their performance in the classroom. Incorporating video reflection tasks actively involves PSTs in the reflective process and allows them to evaluate teaching and learning from varied perspectives and roles (Downey, 2008; Dye, 2007; Shepherd & Hannafin, 2008).

In their foundational work surrounding video reflection, Fuller and Manning (1973) emphasized that a video can result in feelings of dissonance between what the viewer, in this case the PST, perceived or remembered with what was viewed. This opportunity can expedite the development of PSTs’ “reflection in action” (Schön, 1983) and heighten awareness of teaching and learning situations as they actually occur in the classroom environment. Previous research has found that novice teachers in particular may struggle to notice significant features of a particular lesson that connect to future teaching practice (e.g., Barnhart & van Es, 2015; van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a; Wenner & Kittleson, 2018), so coupling video reflection with structured feedback opportunities can support PSTs in taking more of a proactive approach to the planning and goal setting process. This is particularly important for PSTs entering urban environments where their students do not share the same backgrounds and cultural identities because it creates structures for PSTs to better “see” the ways their actions in classrooms land on their students with historically marginalized identities.

Feedback as a stimulus for reflection on practice

The purpose of feedback is to reduce the discrepancy between the established goal and what is recognized (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). It is important for teacher educators to guide PSTs in interpreting their experiences in authentic settings (Schwartz et al., 2018) and to support the development of effective teaching practices (Hammerness et al., 2005). Constructive feedback coupled with reflective opportunities allow PSTs to distinguish effective classroom practices from those that are not (Hudson, 2014; Pena & Almaguer, 2007). For feedback to be integrated effectively, it needs to be timely, specific, and accessible to encourage the individual to apply what they learned in future teaching opportunities (Van Rooij et al., 2019).

Timing

The timing of feedback plays an essential role in shaping PSTs’ understanding of effective teaching practices and effective instructional methods. Desired teaching behaviors are acquired faster and more efficiently when feedback is provided immediately (Scheeler et al., 2004). It also reduces the likelihood of teachers continuing ineffective teaching practices. If feedback is not provided within an appropriate time frame it’s often viewed as an output, or information giving process, rather than a tool meant to engage the PST in examining and enhancing their teaching and student performance. With the goal of feedback being for PSTs to use information from previous performances to improve future ones, feedback practices must create the conditions for PSTs to close the feedback loop (Sadler et al., 2023).

Specificity

In its best form, feedback is information a PST can use. To make feedback useful, it is important to think about the purpose and how it is received by PSTs. Brookhart (2008) believes this means providing feedback that others can understand by ensuring it is comprehensible and deemed valuable. It is important to provide feedback that will meet the PST where they are developmentally, which also increases their perception of the value in the information provided. Additionally, clearly defining learning goals helps establish purpose and in turn helps support PSTs’ self-motivation and goal setting (Brookhart et al., 2009).

Accessibility

Teacher networks and communities play an important role in the growth and development of teachers. Within these communities, peer feedback can provide participants more opportunities to observe and learn from each other by sharing knowledge and experience and promoting self-reflection. Peer feedback can play an important role in helping teachers reflect on strengths and weaknesses in their own teaching through an external lens (Milner-Bolotin, 2018). When constructing peer feedback opportunities, particularly for novice PSTs, a number of studies have discussed the benefits of using a more structured approach to peer feedback (Gielen & De Wever, 2015; Hsia et al., 2016). Embedding collaborative scripts and deliberate group formations are two recommendations commonly discussed in the literature. (Fischer et al., 2013; Vargas-Vera et al., 2013). Collaborative scripts can often specify the scheduling, designated roles, language, and intended activities and outcomes for the collaboration. The goal of these scripts is to “trigger engagement in social and cognitive activities that would otherwise occur rarely or not at all” (Kobbe et al., 2007, p. 212). Intentional grouping that allows students at different performance levels to collaborate can also be beneficial. It cannot be assumed that all students will be competent in offering high quality feedback, so it is critical to create intentional, heterogeneous formations that ensure collectively the group has the knowledge and skills to achieve the intended goal (e.g., Cheng et al., 2015; Gielen & De Wever, 2015). Video can be a useful tool to help engineer opportunities for peer observations and structured feedback as it offers flexibility in how and when the reflective conversations take place. Video is the medium in which our teacher education team aimed to support reflection and professional noticing with our PSTs.

Conceptual framework

In this paper, we build from notions of teaching as an act that is learned through “systematic cycles of inquiry into practice and using evidence generated by these examinations to re-shape instruction” (citing Borko et al., 2008; Cobb et al., 2003; Jacobs et al., 2010; Lewis et al., 2006; Nelson & Slavit, 2008; Windschitl et al., 2011, p. 1312). We look to studies of teachers’ professional noticing to consider the ways that PSTs might engage in meaningful critical inquiry even before their careers begin (e.g., Horn & Campbell, 2015). We follow scholars who have linked teacher professional noticing to “ambitious pedagogy” (Windschitl et al., 2011; van Es & Sherin, 2021), which we see as the primary goal for teachers entering diverse urban teaching settings. In this paper, we define ambitious pedagogy as engagement in teaching that aims to reach and uplift all students, and particularly those with historically marginalized racial, cultural, ethnic, class, and gender identities and differing abilities. We note that this is a lofty but necessary goal for PSTs in urban settings whose classrooms are often underfunded and over-regulated in comparison to their suburban counterparts (Cuban, 1989; Milner, 2012a, 2012b). While we do not expect our PSTs to be able to enact ambitious pedagogy immediately, or even within the confines of our classes, we see ambitious pedagogy as a way of framing teaching practices critically for candidates as they move toward becoming practicing teachers. By centering and modeling these kinds of ambitious teaching practices, we aim to support our teacher candidates in setting high standards for all PK-12 students and engaging students in bringing their own funds of knowledge to bear in classrooms (Esteban-Guitart & Moll, 2014; González et al., 2005; Moll et al., 1992).

Research on teachers’ professional noticing that results in ambitious pedagogy points to the need for PSTs to practice intentional cycles of inquiry with support in order to learn how to engage students in ways that honor and extend their demonstrated understanding of classroom content (Windschitl et al., 2011). Following these authors, we draw upon sociocultural theories of learning (Cole, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978; Vygotsky & Kozulin, 1986; Wertsch, 1991) to see learning to teach as an ontological process through which PSTs can build identities as educators striving toward ambitious practices (e.g., van Es & Sherin, 2021). We see this process connected to the literature on continuums of awareness and improvement around the concepts of teacher concern, professional noticing, and reflection (e.g., Hall & Simeral, 2015). We further understand this kind of learning as often mediated by cultural tools and practices (e.g., Wertsch, 1991). In this study, these tools included self-reflection on video-recorded lessons, collaborative meetings with instructors and mentor teachers, and scaffolded conversations with peers about teaching practices (Jakopovic et al., 2021; 2023; Lemke et al., 2022).

Given the history of video as a tool to aid this kind of PST development (Kersting et al., 2021; Kosko et al., 2021; Santagata et al., 2021; van Es & Sherin, 2008, 2010), we posited that by engaging PSTs in video reflection, we could support them in professional noticing in more culturally responsive ways (van Es, Hand, et al., 2017b). In this study, we sought to better understand the implications that a peer video reflection session near the end of an integrated urban school field experience had on PSTs’ ability to find opportunities to engage in noticing. Previous studies (e.g., Gonzalez & Vargas, 2020) have incorporated video reflection sessions that extend across the course of a semester or even academic year; however, it is not always feasible to integrate such large-scale interventions into teacher preparation programs.

We wanted to better understand how even a single video reflection session could influence PSTs’ ability to take up these elements as a means to enhance their ability to reflect on and adapt their instruction based on the needs of individual students. In our teacher preparation program, we therefore embedded an opportunity for such reflection within a series of connected activities, including a classroom-based practicum. These activities, which we unpack further in the following section, were framed around literature-informed processes for feedback, reflection, and goal setting, with intended outcomes for PSTs of increased noticing and implementation of feedback to move them toward ambitious teaching practices.

Our initial conceptual framework drew from van Es, Cashen, et al., (2017a; see also van Es & Sherin, 2021) features of professional noticing, as well as Lave and Wenger’s (1991) notions of legitimate peripheral participation, where we expected to observe students moving toward reflections on instruction that allow them to elaborate on observations to emphasize ambitious pedagogy and then analyze opportunities to change pedagogy in ways that serve diverse students (see also Windschitl et al., 2011). However, recognizing that PSTs in early courses in our program may not be at the point when they can “attend” (van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a) to the learning in the classroom because they are still learning the practices that might lead them to look and interpret in the classroom space, we wanted to understand: What are preservice teachers’ perceptions of participating in a video reflection session as part of larger, comprehensive practicum structure? In what ways did the processes integrated for reflection on the video lesson, peer feedback, and goal setting provide opportunities for preservice teachers to engage in the practice of noticing salient moments of their teaching?

Methods

This study focused on the potential implications of using video reflection and peer feedback as a supplemental professional learning opportunity for PSTs. We utilized qualitative methods, as this allowed us to best understand the granular aspects of the video session that participants found useful in their development as future teachers.

Participants and context

This study was conducted within a teacher preparation program at a mid-sized urban university in the Midwest, where the largest public school system in the state serves a population of over 51,000 students who speak over 100 different languages (Blinded). Nearly 80% of the PK-12 population are people of color and two-thirds of the student body qualify for free and reduced lunch (Blinded). Despite the diversity of the district’s population, the majority of PSTs enrolled in local teacher education programs are white. Participants in this study included 49 PSTs, eight of whom identified as students of color, and all of whom were undergraduate students receiving an elementary education endorsement and enrolled in a 12-credit hour block of methods classes in Fall 2022. Participants were in their third or fourth year of college and had one prior practicum in a general education setting with minimal opportunity to lead instruction. After these courses, students enrolled in the certification program go on to a final practicum before a semester of student teaching.

Four of the five authors were members of the instructional team for this cohort of PSTs and engaged in a shared field experience as part of their block of methods courses. The third author is an instructor in the same teacher preparation program at the university but did not supervise the study participants. All authors identify as white women who were practicing teachers in PK-12 urban schools prior to our work at the university. Three of the authors formerly taught in the district where the PSTs’ practicum took place and brought that context to the framing of the practicum experience. While we acknowledge that our positionality often does not always reflect that of the young people who attend PK-12 schools in our city, our engagement with reflection, noticing, and ambitious pedagogy is one way to support our PSTs in attending to the ways that their own cultural backgrounds may not always map onto the experiences of the young people in these urban classrooms.

The timing and structure of the PST reflection adds context to the study. Participants engaged in a six-week field experience, during which time they were given multiple opportunities to teach, reflect, and receive feedback in a variety of content areas in PK-6 classrooms. At the start of the field experience, PSTs conducted a “microteach” lesson on campus for a small group of their peers and one instructor. They received immediate peer and instructor feedback, through which they reflected on areas of strength and growth. Additionally, PSTs engaged in formal observation and debrief cycles with both faculty instructors and instructional coaches (see Figure 1). During the fourth week of field experience and with permission from the district, PSTs recorded one of their planned interactions in the classroom with the structured reflection occurring the following week, which served as the site of data collection for this study. Instructional coaches and instructors facilitated the video club-style peer reflection session using a similar model. PSTs then returned to their field experience for two additional days, which afforded some participants the opportunity to apply takeaways from the video reflection session immediately into their instructional planning.

Figure 1. Structures and expected outcomes for PSTs as they move toward noticing through integrated practicum experiences based on the conceptual framework.

The video reflection model

During the fourth week of the field experience, PSTs were asked to video record one of their planned lessons and submit a chosen 10 minutes of instruction to a secure portal so both they and instructors could access the video. Neither PSTs nor the instructors viewed the video prior to the day of the session. On the day of the video reflection session, PSTs were intentionally placed into groups of four by the instructors. We considered grade level, content area, and PSTs’ instructional performance as factors when constructing groups to help facilitate thoughtful conversations to both reflect on their performance and set targeted goals for the future. During the reflection session, which took place for two and a half hours at the university during their typical course time, PSTs were asked to watch their video three times independently to: (1) identify teaching practice “keepers” or what they felt best about in regard to their teaching and instruction; (2) identify student learning “keepers” or how they supported students in the learning process; and (3) identify three “polishers” or what they would change to better support student learning in the future. All of these ideas were recorded in a self-reflection document that offered structures and language to support their reflection. Then PSTs were asked to review the list of “polishers” to determine one they wanted to use as a goal through which they would discuss their developing practice with a small group of peers.

While group members were not expected to view one another’s videos, each provided a synopsis of their instruction and content prior to describing their goals for their practice. Each group member was given fifteen minutes to share their reflections. After identifying and providing context around their identified “polisher” from the lesson, group members provided suggestions or additional instructional strategies for the PST to consider. Instructors circulated amongst small groups to offer support and suggestions as needed. Upon completion of the discussion, the PSTs used feedback and ideas to identify and record a goal and next steps.

It is important to note that our university has consensual agreement from the local school districts we partner with to video record in schools, so long as the videos are (1) recorded on university owned, password protected devices, (2) focused on the PST rather than students to ensure anonymity, and (3) only shared internally and for the purposes of coursework and practicum related assignments. Our partner school districts see the use of video as a tool to help develop the capacity of future educators, many of whom matriculate into these local districts upon degree completion. Transparency and consistent communication about the intention and use of video in the classroom have been a key component of our success in integrating this as a feature of our field experiences.

Data collection

One week after the completion of the field experience, participants completed a four-question open-ended questionnaire to gather their perceptions about the video reflection session. The following questions were posed in the questionnaire:

1. What were the benefits of engaging in the video reflection activity?

2. What were the challenges of engaging in the video reflection activity?

3. In what ways did the video reflection activity impact your overall field experience?

4. In what ways could the video reflection activity be improved upon for future iterations?

Data analysis

Our research team engaged in multiple rounds of coding to examine participant responses to the four prompts on the questionnaire. We initially open coded the data to investigate potential patterns of responses to each question individually, meeting to discuss and collaboratively reconcile these initial codes. We then engaged in a second round of coding where we developed a codebook (see Appendix A) to ensure valid and reliable treatment of the codes across the data. The team individually and deductively re-coded the data, before meeting to reconcile any remaining discrepancies and refine the codebook to ensure inter-coder reliability and increase the validity of our findings (see Table 1) (Bernard et al., 2017; Macqueen et al., 1998; Saldaña, 2021).

Table 1. Coding Reconciliation by Questionnaire Prompt.

Questionnaire Prompt	Intercoder Reliability Among Three Coders (%)
1	79
2	87
3	74
4	92

Note. Percentages based on instances where all three coders agreed, including segments that were dual-coded.

After establishing codes, we reanalyzed the data using a thematic lens (Clarke et al., 2015) so that we could better interpret the experiences of participants and determine how our emerging themes aligned to the existing literature. As we did so, we recognized overlaps with the work of Sherin and van Es (e.g., 2008) around professional noticing; however, further investigation suggested that their framework did not accurately encapsulate all of our data. We thus began to build our conceptual framework (bottom row of Figure 1) to examine the ways that PSTs were moving toward noticing, prior to the point when we could claim that they were noticing, through reflection on their practice and take up feedback through our program structures (Figure 1). We utilized this framework to map the coded data onto concepts of professional noticing, peer feedback, critical reflection on teaching, and implementation of feedback (see Appendix A) in order to examine how participants took up these ideas after the reflection session. Finally, we utilized the responses to the fourth question to interrogate ways in which the video session could be improved upon to increase the potential benefits for future iterations.

Findings

Our analysis indicated that the ways PSTs conceptualized and interpreted their experiences with the video reflection activity varied as they worked toward noticing in service of a future of “ambitious pedagogy” (van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a; Windschitl et al., 2011). We anticipated that our PSTs would see the peer collaboration and video reflection as opportunities to practice and enter into noticing (Jacobs et al., 2010; Sherin et al., 2011; van Es et al., 2017). Most of the PSTs identified the reflective opportunity as beneficial in supporting this growth; however, the extent to which PSTs were able to engage with the act of noticing occurred unevenly across the data. We found that through the reflective activity many PSTs noticed moments of their instruction where they saw opportunities to improve their practice, but the range of the awareness of these moments was wider than we anticipated. We identified PSTs who appeared ready to engage with the notion of professional noticing, those who recognized moments worthy of noticing but articulated needing more support to do so, and a smaller group who expressed that they did not understand how to use the reflective activity in a meaningful way. In the following sections, we present these findings and illustrate how a proposed reflective framework for thinking about PSTs’ reflection might support teacher educators to enact activities that better lead PSTs toward ambitious pedagogy.

Beginning to notice

One of the main goals of the video reflection session was to provide a structured, targeted opportunity for PSTs to develop their capacity to notice small, important moments within larger episodes of their own teaching. This requires that they learn to notice both the teaching moves they make and how students engage with and think about content as a result of those moves (e.g., van Es & Sherin, 2021), which is an advanced skill for novices still navigating their way through the stages of teacher concern (Fuller, 1969; Fuller & Brown, 1975). Despite this, several participants reported recognizing aspects of the classroom that aligned with “attending” and “interpreting” on van Es and Sherin’s professional noticing framework (van Es & Sherin, 2002, 2021), which we described as “beginning to notice.” Participants in this group expressed that the structure of the video reflection allowed them space to step back and assess their teaching actions and the resulting student reactions, and that engaging in subsequent discussion with peers helped them further their ability to shift from observing to interpreting the events (e.g., the first two stages of professional noticing according to van Es & Sherin, 2021). These PSTs also expressed that practicing their noticing in this way helped them to envision what it might look like to reshape their instruction in the future.

Looking to future opportunities

Part of developing professional noticing requires teachers to identify their own pedagogical knowledge and the ways that those content and practices either support or shut down student interactions (van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a; van Es & Sherin, 2008, 2010). In the context of urban education, this kind of noticing means that PSTs are recognizing and responding to not only their own planning and pedagogical practices, but also to the ways their students are interacting with the context of the classroom in relation to their cultural backgrounds and identities (van Es, Hand, et al., 2017b). PSTs who were “beginning to notice” often articulated recognizing their own actions in the classroom as having potential to shift students’ experiences. As one participant expressed, “It is beneficial to watch ourselves teach because we are able to not only watch our students but look at ourselves and what strategies work, what might we do differently, and where we need to grow as well” (Participant 8). Another participant shared, “The video reflection helped me to know how I would change a future lesson or how I would change certain things in my lesson to make it work better the next time I taught it” (Participant 16). Remarks from PSTs that we categorized as “beginning to notice” often recognized how their noticing could positively shift the experiences of the students in their classrooms, which requires them to move to the final stage of teacher concern- awareness of students.

Another characteristic of PSTs who were “beginning to notice” were comments that the reflection activity positively impacted their goals and ideas for future instruction. Participant 20 wrote, “The video reflection impacted my field experience by taking the keepers and polishers and moving forward to next practicum to have a goal for that block.” Similarly, Participant 6 remarked, “I found that I reflected more to improve my future plans since I had specific feedback and examples I could go back to.” These comments illustrate the potential for video reflection as a tool to make practice visible and to build PSTs’ capacity for noticing by offering opportunities to watch and rewatch an interaction, shifting focus from what they are doing in the moment and toward reflection on how the task is being pedagogically implemented along with the potential impact on student learning. PSTs who viewed the activity as effectively engaging them in beginning level noticing moved beyond simply considering ideas and suggestions and toward a vision of future pedagogical implementation and improvement.

Seeing from students’ perspectives

Participants who appeared to be in the beginning stages of noticing shared that reviewing their video multiple times was a good way to see themselves more objectively during targeted moments of instruction, which they explained led to more awareness of student learning. As one PST said, “I liked being able to reflect on myself and see things that are invisible to me [while I’m teaching]. There were some things that I did not realize I was doing and I am able to fix that for the future” (Participant 12). Another participant offered a similar sentiment, and further noted that they were beginning to notice how their instruction influenced students. “The biggest benefit is that the video doesn’t lie. It is quick and easy to see things that you are doing that can be impactful or harmful to student learning” (Participant 17). Similarly, another shared the value of seeing how their practice impacted the students in the video,

The video reflection activity impacted my overall field experience because I could visually see my teaching strategies, what was working with students, what was not working with students, etc. I was then able to recognize what I wanted to keep going into future field experiences and what I wanted to get rid of (Participant 27).

Horn (2005, 2007) purports that enhanced, or sophisticated, pedagogical teacher judgment requires that teachers take into account the ecological state of their classroom, which includes the interplay among classroom climate, teaching moves, and student engagement and learning. As novices, PSTs are not expected to engage in these sophisticated levels of noticing without substantial support; however, reflective remarks from our participants suggest that it is possible for novices to become aware of the elements of their instruction that influence student engagement and learning, even within early stages of their development as educators. As Participant 35 explained, “It helped me to see the lesson from my students’ perspective, which will guide my future lesson plans and teaching instruction.” The intention of the video reflection session was to help PSTs examine the impact their teaching had on students’ abilities to take up content-focused ideas and to use their reflection as an opportunity to improve future practice. Reflections from the participants in this “beginning to notice” group indicate that it is possible for PSTs to engage in attending to students, despite where we might anticipate their awareness to be while still several semesters away from program completion.

Using peer feedback to improve pedagogy

In addition to self-reflection, our data illustrated the ways that peer feedback acted as another scaffold that helped PSTs who engaged in beginning noticing develop goals and action steps for the future. Several PSTs in this group specifically expressed that working alongside peers helped them to identify new ideas for their future classroom practice. While we anticipated that participants would find value in receiving feedback from peers, we were surprised that many identified the structure of the video session as a means for them to pause and intentionally think about peer feedback in ways that promoted the uptake of these ideas in future lessons (Gjerde et al., 2022). For example, Participant 8 shared,

We were able to hear from our peers where we excelled but also got the chance to hear from their point of view on what worked for them or their mentor teachers to be able to try out next time we teach or next year in our practicum.

As “beginning to notice” participants shared their thoughts on the experience, many focused on this idea of incorporating peer feedback into their future instruction, but some took it a step further. In a handful of instances, PSTs shared that they capitalized on the remaining two days in practicum the week after the reflection session and applied ideas they gained from these small group conversations. As one stated, “I was able to take some of the peer feedback that other practicum students gave me and implement it to build stronger relationships and test new techniques into the following days of teaching” (Participant 46). Similarly, another participant called out specifically that the peer feedback was what led to immediate implementation, sharing, “The peer video review helped me the most. Going into the last week of field and the last lesson(s) with that feedback and advice helped a lot” (Participant 18).

The fact that these PSTs combined their own beginner noticing with ideas from peer conversation to build and even implement their goals for improving instruction was an unanticipated outcome, particularly because of the activity’s timing near the end of practicum. This speaks to the potential importance of embedding these kinds of video reflection sessions within the broader context of the practicum experience at a point where PSTs have had enough opportunities to consider and integrate feedback into their practice. Structured reflection that is supported by peers can be a helpful tool for PSTs to envision improvement in their practice. As van Es, Cashen, et al. (2017a) claimed, PSTs need support to “see” ambitious pedagogy and understand that it is possible for them to work toward. Participant 39 appeared to recognize this idea, explaining,

The video reflection gave me the chance to see myself and the learning environment that I was responsible for creating. There is no escaping the images of yourself or the sound of your own voice once it is recorded for us to see. This is a very practical assessment that helps us realize who we are as teachers so that we can pick what we want to keep and build a plan for what we would like to work on as educators.

For this group of PSTs, engaging in video reflection created structures that supported their ability to reflect on their practice in ways that led them toward ambitious pedagogy. Having the chance to reflect on the same moments in their practice multiple times, while attending to the ways their students engaged during these episodes, paired with the ways they collaborated with peers to unpack these teaching moves, meant that they were able to more deeply engage in the kinds of practice that reflected movement toward professional noticing.

Wanting to notice

Much of the literature on teacher preparation suggests that PSTs are still learning what it is that they need to attend to in their teaching and in interactions with students, and that, even as they begin to grow this awareness, they wrestle with how to continue to improve (e.g., van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a). We noted this kind of tension in the remarks of several participants as they described moments of grappling with specific elements of their video clips when attempting to engage in noticing. This group of PSTs were enthusiastic about the possibility of video reflection and working with peers and wanted to know how to use the reflection opportunity to support their practice, but often articulated feeling like they did not yet have the skills they needed to know how to successfully engage in the activity. PSTs in this group identified some of the perceived barriers as they wrestled with learning to notice, including (1) feeling unsure of how to interpret observations into stronger, future practice; (2) focusing on managerial aspects of their lessons, rather than student learning; and (3) struggling to find the language to provide meaningful feedback to peers.

Missing goals for the future

In their foundational works on professional noticing, van Es and Sherin (2002, 2021) describe the need for teachers to recognize which teaching practices have the potential to engage and deepen student learning. The urban context of the practicum setting in which our PSTs engaged required that our PSTs begin to recognize not only strong content area practices but also culturally responsive practices that could help them integrate their students’ funds of knowledge (Moll et al., 1992). However, as a number of authors have acknowledged (e.g., Ladson-Billings, 2014; Milner, 2012a, 2012b; Paris, 2012), PSTs, particularly those from white, affluent backgrounds, do not always have the breadth of perspective to break away from histories of deficit language and perspectives that have plagued teaching in urban spaces. Anecdotally, a number of the PSTs in this study expressed frustration when they either did not see representations of these practices in their practicum classrooms or did not feel they had enough time to build the kinds of relationships with students that could support their understanding of students’ backgrounds. Additionally, these PSTs expressed feeling unsure about how to envision these culturally responsive practices alongside the content students needed. When PSTs are not yet in a place where they either cannot clearly articulate an understanding of or envision themselves engaged in ambitious pedagogy, it is unlikely they can engage in meaningful noticing.

In our data, we noted a distinct difference between PSTs who were “beginning to notice” compared to those who expressed “wanting to notice” in that, although the latter often articulated seeing value in the reflection and feedback activities, they did not set future goals for themselves as a result of the activity, even given the explicit structure of the reflection session. Rather, this group of PSTs seemed to see the value of the reflection session as “in the moment” idea sharing, something that lived only in their previous experiences instead of information that could be used to move toward more ambitious pedagogy in the future. For example, they still shared things like, “I was able to hear different suggestions, but also what went well from my peers as well” (Participant 9), or “It was nice to get their input on both keepers and polishers that I had” (Participant 11), without a clearly articulated goal of how the feedback or discussion might impact their future practice.

A further distinction we noticed was that this group of PSTs often shared that, while they were excited to become teachers, they were more focused on their own grades and experiences in the classroom rather than setting goals based on the specific needs of and ideas from their students. For example, a few participants made remarks such as “I think the reflection could just be done at home as an assignment” (Participant 4) and “I think it could be an ‘on your own’ activity” (Participant 32). Although both Participant 4 and 32 identified the experience as a positive one and noted they set goals based on the activity, they struggled to connect this back to the structure as an opportunity to hone their understanding of ambitious pedagogy and looking for moments to notice.

As the reflection activity happened just before the end of practicum, a number of PSTs’ comments also seemed to suggest that they saw the timing of the session as a missed opportunity. For example, Participant 7 explained, “I would say possibly having it earlier in the semester so students have time to be able to work on the suggestions of the growth area so they get practice in what their peers suggest.” Another participant also shared their frustration about the time that implementing feedback into practice takes.

I wish it had been earlier in the practicum experience so we could actually implement the tips fully into our teaching. I had only one to two days where I could actually try to add them into my practice, and it was challenging to see any progress immediately (Participant 45).

Both remarks highlight a desire by the PSTs to follow up on the reflective conversations with action in the classroom to help them move toward effective teaching practices yet saw the opportunity to do so as closed once practicum ended. Due to the alignment of the university and local school district’s calendars, the video reflection session took place near the end of the participants’ field experience, leaving them two days during this practicum to implement any goals they set for themselves based on their self-reflection and peer feedback. While we acknowledge that the video reflection experience took place toward the end of the practicum, we were struck by the difference in the ways that students who were “beginning to notice” consistently articulated being excited to try out practices the next day or even in future practica, while those who were “wanting to notice” often expressed regret that they were not able to take the practices forward.

Observing instead of noticing students

Another way that participants who we identified as “wanting to notice” reacted differently to the video session than those who were “beginning to notice” was in their lack of attention to student thinking about content. These participants described the reflection session through what appeared to be a more egocentric lens, expressing that it was an experience that benefited them without making a connection that self-reflection on their teaching practice can act as an important lever that supports their students’ growth. These PSTs wrote remarks such as, “It was a good way for us to see our teaching and find specific things we would like to improve on” (Participant 16), without noticing what students were doing or considering how this might influence their perceived areas of growth as teachers. Another participant similarly framed a comment, saying, “I think it helped break down my performance and focus on some positive things as well as things to work on” (Participant 32). Although this finding is not surprising based on where we anticipate PSTs at this stage of their program would be along Fuller’s (1969) stages of teacher concern, seeing that a number of PSTs who were “beginning to notice” did in fact use the experience to become more aware of their students suggests that there is potential for video reflection and peer interactions to support PSTs in moving toward professional noticing and ambitious pedagogy within their training programs. The fact that this was not true across the board further suggests that differentiated support may be needed for professional development opportunities to be effective for all PSTs.

In addition to PSTs who did not consider students at all, there were some who described observing the way students acted and reacted rather than focusing on the ways students engaged with content (i.e., professional noticing). For example, one participant’s statement focused more on these managerial aspects of the lesson, saying, “I got to see what happens when you turn your back, and how I could have done something differently” (Participant 5). Several other responses focused on this idea of the video as a tool to “pick up on more things that are happening” (Participant 30) than they sometimes can in the moment, without identifying what sorts of “things” they believed were worth noticing. Again, this aligns with much of the literature in terms of where we would expect PSTs to be in both the stages of teacher concern (Fuller, 1969), as well as their lack of ability to engage in professional noticing (Jacobs et al., 2010; van Es & Sherin, 2002, 2021). These instances suggest that, while the PSTs found the exercise of focusing on student actions in the video as worthwhile, they did not yet have a sound understanding of what they should be watching students say and do within the framing of ambitious pedagogy. In our urban context, we recognize that this kind of engagement with video reflection provides substantial support for guiding our own instruction as we seek to engage PSTs in attending to their students’ ideas in ways that uplift and connect content to their varied experiences.

Missing pedagogical language and strategies

Unlike their “beginning to notice” counterparts, several PSTs in this group commented on their struggle to support their peers with meaningful feedback during the reflection session. One participant noted that at times the feedback became repetitive as the PSTs could not generate new ideas to share. Another expressed that sometimes they did not have the pedagogical knowledge to provide effective feedback. Participant 27 shared this sentiment, saying, “When we were in small groups discussing our polishers, we couldn’t always determine how to help with a specific issue another teacher candidate was having so we skipped over it.” Another participant concurred, adding, “I would’ve liked hearing feedback from an instructor (Participant 32).” Despite the goal of the session being to engage participants in both self and peer reflection to support their development of noticing, at times they expressed they were not yet equipped to do so on their own. This suggests that, although some participants received targeted feedback and/or noticed specific enough elements of their video lesson to set future goals at the end of the session, other PSTs may require more scaffolding to meet this same outcome.

Questioning the need to notice

Not all participants identified the video session as beneficial in providing effective opportunities to critically self-reflect on their teaching or to develop their noticing. In addition to comments that were too vague to tie back to our conceptual framework (e.g., “I liked the activity and thought it was beneficial” does not express specifically what about the activity supported their learning or challenged their thinking), we also identified a number of counter-examples in our data with regard to PSTs thoughtfully engaging in self-reflection and seeking opportunities for noticing as they watched their videos.

Comments from the PSTs in this group indicated a potential lack of ability to reflect deeply on their practice at this point in their development. As one PST stated, “I think it was challenging to engage in reflection for such a long period of time (Participant 25),” and another, “I feel like I’m not as good at criticizing myself as other people are. For example, I may watch my video and not notice much wrong” (Participant 28). Particularly with the latter example, PSTs may need specific support to recognize the goal of reflection not only as being critical of themselves, but also critical of how their students are engaging with content in order to find value engaging in self-reflection as a means of improving their practice. This is supported by existing literature about some individuals’ lack of awareness versus others’ ability to intentionally notice particular features of instruction (Fuller & Brown, 1975; Mason, 2002; van Es & Sherin, 2002, 2008), as well as the notion that some PSTs may lack the ability to critique their own practice in comparison to that of their peers (Seidel et al., 2011).

There were only three PSTs who reported finding little to no benefit in the video reflection session. Despite the small number who reported it as a null experience, it is important to note that these PSTs did not appear to connect the intention of the activity as part of a larger, comprehensive series of related experiences aimed at developing their reflective teaching practice. Nor did they see it as space to set targeted goals for their future growth as teachers. One participant shared, “I did not feel like there was a major purpose to the video reflection, so it made it hard to engage in the experience. I felt like I was just getting a surface level idea of my teaching” (Participant 47). It is possible that participants such as this one could have benefited from more clarity as to the purpose of the session and how it directly connected to the previous field activities, or from more clearly articulated goals for the reflection session around developing their capacity to move toward noticing.

It was our hope that all participants would use this culminating reflection opportunity to continue building on the processes they had engaged in throughout the six-week practicum experience. This final finding suggests that, developmentally, some PSTs may require more intensive support to enhance their ability to reflect on their practice. When considering the role that professional noticing and reflection play in helping PSTs develop culturally responsive practices and ambitious pedagogy that promote equity for all students, this finding highlights a potentially problematic element of the activity’s structure.

Discussion

Initially, this study sought to explore the ways that preservice teachers (PSTs) moved toward noticing as they engaged in video reflection in the middle of their teacher preparation program in an urban school setting. It was our hope that embedding the video reflection session near the end of our practicum experience would provide PSTs a final opportunity to practice noticing, and to shift their focus away from observing and describing events and toward interpreting episodes of their teaching (van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a; van Es & Sherin, 2021; Windschitl et al., 2011). As we began our data analysis, we found that the progression toward professional noticing and ambitious pedagogy was far more varied than we had anticipated for a group of PSTs who mostly shared similar cultural and educational backgrounds. Our data illustrated the ways that PSTs approached a video reflection experience with their peers from different perspectives, which in turn led us to a more nuanced understanding of the ways that PSTs develop reflection skills throughout their programmatic experiences. In the following sections, we discuss the ways that PSTs moved through the peer video reflection process and the implications that this data has for PSTs engaging in urban contexts more broadly.

Learning to notice as a progression

Our analysis indicated that our PSTs fell across a wider range of development than we had initially anticipated with regard to their ability to reflect upon their teaching, engage in early noticing of content and pedagogical practices, and articulate their recognition of ambitious pedagogy. An unexpected finding in this study was that some of our participants were quite eager to take up the practice of reflection and reached a point in the activity where they discussed both their teaching moves and their students, as well as how to capitalize on the activity to transform their future practice. We called this the “beginning to notice” group because these PSTs’ descriptions of their experiences in reflective activities aligned with the initial stages of noticing (van Es & Sherin, 2008; 2017, 2021) in that they were able to name some of the pedagogical moves they observed in the video, articulated the ways these practices may have impacted their students, and developed goals to reimagine their teaching both in their immediate futures and beyond.

While our data was collected without student identifiers, one possible difference between the group of PSTs who were “beginning to notice” and their peers may have been that, because the instructional team intentionally crafted the peer groups, PSTs were grouped with partners who were developmentally at different stages of teacher concern. Our intention was that, as a group, they would be able to leverage vocabulary and name the things they were observing together. Some PSTs might have entered into a space of “beginning to notice” a result of multiple group members being prepared to engage effectively within the structure of the secession. From a sociocultural perspective (Vygotsky, 1978), this suggests that pairing PSTs intentionally with at least one peer who has a more advanced level of understanding of pedagogy might result in a zone of proximal development approach to reflection that could contribute to deeper engagement in the activities through peer-support. It is also possible, however, that these groupings were not distributed as evenly as we anticipated, leading to some groups having more participants with the skills to support one another in purposeful reflection than others. PSTs who were “beginning to notice” also identified specific features of the video reflection session model that offered opportunities to improve their noticing. They tended to see watching their video multiple times as an opportunity to learn to notice, had a pedagogical toolbox to draw upon that allowed them to clearly articulate features of their lesson they felt went well or could be improved upon, and were equipped with the pedagogical vocabulary to facilitate productive small group conversations and offer peer feedback.

Another possibility is that PSTs with backgrounds and identities that more closely resemble those of their students may be more apt to recognize how students are engaging with and interpreting ideas in the classroom (Bishop, 1990). Some PSTs may have had experiences that closely reflected those of their students, making it easier to “see” how their students were engaged because of their shared funds of knowledge, experiences, or identities. This begs the consideration of how teacher educators prepare all PSTs to enter urban classrooms, both in terms of their pedagogical and content knowledge development as well as an enhanced recognition of themselves within their students and how to develop their cultural competence (e.g., Gay, 2002, 2010b; Ladson-Billings, 1995, 2009; Paris & Alim, 2014). Helping PSTs to engage in asset-based learning, where they teach in ways that are responsive and empathetic to students’ funds of knowledge, requires them to be curious about students’ cultural and linguistic backgrounds and to capitalize on revelations about their students’ lived experiences in the classroom (Moll et al., 1992; Paris, 2012; Snyder & Staehr Fenner, 2021). When teacher educators frame both theory and authentic teaching experiences through this lens and provide reflective opportunities for PSTs to learn to notice and leverage what they see and interpret, we have the potential to remove some of the systemic barriers children in urban settings face in terms of their ability to engage in meaningful, powerful learning experiences.

We categorized the second group of students as “wanting to notice,” as this group similarly expressed finding value in reflection but articulated needing more support in order to “see” students and their own pedagogical strategies. In some instances, these participants focused more on self or the task (stages one and two along Fuller’s progression), without acknowledging their students. Others in this group observed students, but from the lens of managing the environment rather than noticing students’ uptake of content. At times, PSTs in this group noted challenges in their ability to offer meaningful peer feedback due to a lack of vocabulary or tools to draw upon. Taken together, this suggests that PSTs may require additional training to develop their content and teaching skills, as well as in how to integrate cultural humility into these elements of their planning and delivery, to further develop their awareness of what and how to notice. This may involve some shifts in the structure of our video reflection session to include more intentional vocabulary support and a continued effort at strategic pairing of students who have exhibited different strengths, possibly with the addition of an instructor for groups where we anticipate such an extra layer of scaffolding could be beneficial. Ideally, this allows PSTs in this second group the differentiated supports they need to successfully make goals for their future practice like their “beginning to notice” peers. Based on these findings, it is clear that, in urban education, we must question whether PSTs have the tools they need to see ambitious pedagogy that aligns with their potential students’ backgrounds. As teacher educators, we cannot assume they will “see” their students on their own, thus we must be intentional in modeling and supporting their development of this as a critical skill of effective teachers.

As we examined the data from the third group, which we called “questioning the need to notice,” we realized that, despite the clear intention of the activity on our end, PST reflection is by no means guaranteed. Through our findings, we came to recognize that some PSTs may need more intensive support from instructors to even engage purposefully in the activity. Additionally, it is possible that this group included PSTs whose diverse backgrounds meant that the video itself was problematic. In this case, perhaps the feeling of being surveilled changed the nature of the interaction so much that some participants did not see value in it. It is important to interrogate the experiences of this group further to better understand how to identify PSTs who may need additional, differentiated scaffolding to engage in reflection that are based on an accurate understanding of the barriers to their participation.

Informing our practice as teacher educators

At times it can be challenging for PSTs to pick up on the nuances of their teaching moves and the impact this can have on students’ ability to effectively engage with content. Fuller (1969) suggested that teachers develop along a continuum in which they shift their attention from anxious self-concern toward engaged adaptation of curriculum for students. When PSTs in this study took up the video observations in ways that demonstrated the beginnings of noticing, they appeared to also engage in this shift from focus on self to others (Fuller & Manning, 1973). This affords an opportunity for PSTs to learn to critically reflect on their practice in ways that can disrupt deficit narratives and instead move toward culturally responsive pedagogy. As such, our team utilized the results of this study to identify areas where we can continue to improve both our program and our own competence as urban teacher educators.

Related to programmatic changes, we recognize that the spread of readiness to engage in noticing across our PSTs indicates the need to provide additional scaffolding for reflective opportunities. After reflecting on our findings, our instructional team examined the specific language we utilized across the various reflection and goal setting activities across the integrated practicum (e.g., instructor and coach observations, peer microteaches, video reflection) and revised the prompts and questions for each of these activities to ensure they are parallel in language. We hope that increasing this consistency across the six-week experience will help more PSTs see the video reflection as a connected and relevant opportunity with the dual goal of reflecting on practice and using this reflection to set future teaching goals in future semesters. Similarly, we continue to seek out ways to clearly name, model, and reinforce features of teaching that build toward ambitious pedagogy to help increase our PSTs’ awareness of and language to discuss when reflecting on their practice.

Second, we noted that, in addition to some PSTs struggling to articulate strengths and areas of growth from their self-observation, their peers similarly struggled to provide targeted feedback and strategies when they had not observed the video themselves. As Fuller and Manning (1973) underscore, watching video eliminates the dissonance between what is perceived from what is viewed. Moving forward, we plan to restructure the activity to ensure the entire small group has the opportunity to view excerpts of video that PSTs self-identify as keepers and polishers through the cyclical viewing process. We hope that this will foster a more supportive environment for participants to better support their peer’s teaching goals and provide a more targeted repertoire of suggestions that can support PSTs as they learn to notice and imagine their future teaching practice.

Finally, we continually seek ways to improve our own practice as urban teacher educators, so that we can help our PSTs learn to effectively navigate the complexities of supporting students whose backgrounds and lived experiences may be starkly different from their own. To do so, our instructional team continues to develop our course content and framing in ways that can better support our PSTs in developing a knowledge base that embraces cultural diversity as an asset, and supports their ability to adopt and adapt teaching practices that are responsive to the funds of knowledge of their students (Gay, 2010b, Ladson-Billings, 1995, 2009; Moll et al., 1992; Paris & Alim, 2014). If the goal is to set our future teachers up to thrive in urban settings, we must constantly reflect on ourselves, acknowledging and examining the limitations of our own positionality and seeking ways to enhance our toolboxes as teacher educators.

Implications

van Es and Sherin (2021) argue that the ultimate goal of professional noticing is for teachers to shift their observations away from describing and evaluating instructional moments and toward an interpretational stance that allows them to better make sense of students’ thinking and understanding. In this study we found that PSTs took up noticing along a continuum, which indicates a need for teacher educators to find ways to capitalize on reflection as a lever to move PSTs toward the beginning stages of noticing. Shifting PST noticing from a lack of awareness and awareness of self-only during instruction (What am I doing and how am I being perceived?) to an awareness of others (What are students doing and understanding? How are they taking up the ideas I’ve presented?) can move them through the stages of teacher concern (Fuller, 1969; Fuller & Brown, 1975). It can also facilitate their movement toward the ability to notice (van Es & Sherin, 2002; 2008; 2021), and ultimately promote their future use of ambitious pedagogy (van Es, Cashen, et al., 2017a). Given the diverse backgrounds of the students our PSTs will likely serve upon program completion, it is critical to move them expediently through these stages of concern, allowing them to engage in teaching as a profession that strives toward professional noticing through an equity lens (van Es, Hand, et al., 2017b).

We expected that the common structures of the activities across our practicum (classroom-based observations and feedback, microteaches with peer feedback, video reflection with instructor feedback and the video reflection session with peer feedback) would facilitate a cyclical and connected series of opportunities for PSTs to develop their noticing around their teaching and the impact on students. However, we learned several things that other teacher educators, particularly those supporting PSTs in urban settings, can take away from our study.

First, our findings suggest that even a single, episodic video reflection activity, particularly when embedded within common structures that provide a range of connected reflective opportunities, has the potential to lead PSTs into spaces where they can implement what they have learned immediately, which is worthy of further exploration. Some PSTs in this study were “beginning to notice” moments of their teaching that were worth attending to as they grappled with how to integrate what they were learning about ambitious pedagogy into their vision of teaching. These PSTs often noted features of the session structure as supportive to this work (e.g., watching the video multiple times, reflection prompts, peer feedback). Other PSTs were not yet equipped with the tools needed to support their peers in this type of feedback scenario. A lack of content knowledge, language, and experience in the classroom may inhibit some PSTs’ ability to establish and share potentially effective teaching strategies with their peers. To counteract this, having an instructor or mentor teacher be part of the group could lead to more ideas and evidence-based strategy suggestions when PSTs are unable to support or provide suggestions on their own. Although programs often cannot increase the amount of time PSTs engage in teaching practice and reflection, they can capitalize on the opportunities that they do have in place. To do this effectively, teacher educators must anticipate both the knowledge and skills that PSTs need to engage in this work (e.g., develop strong content and pedagogical knowledge, shift the focus from self to student, utilize an equity framing for noticing that is underpinned by culturally responsive practices), as well as effective strategies to get them there.

Second, we noted that the timing, specificity, and accessibility of feedback for and by PSTs matters. Feedback is meant to reduce the discrepancy between the established goal and what is recognized (Hattie & Timperley, 2007), and provide positive, corrective, and specific opportunities for ongoing improvement (Scheeler et al., 2004). In our study, our PSTs were in different places in terms of the ability to provide and to process feedback effectively. It is important for teacher educators to create structures that help PSTs articulate their ideas. Providing specific reflective prompts or sentence stems to guide and generate feedback, or even including instructors in the small group discussions, could enhance a small group, peer discussion format. Additionally, some PSTs saw the video reflection as coming “too late” to do anything with the feedback, which diminished the impact of the activity. Setting a clear expectation that the goal of noticing is to consider implications on future teaching practice from the stance of developing their long-term professional vision of ambitious pedagogy may help to provoke a different response from PSTs. Teacher educators must anticipate the differentiated supports and structures their PSTs need to provide and receive effective feedback to ensure they all get something out of the video reflection, regardless of where they are along the noticing continuum.

Finally, even though the members of our instructional team are all white, early career teacher educators, we saw some success in moving our PSTs toward our long-term goal of professional noticing. This is particularly important because we recognize that in order for teachers to effectively support students from diverse and historically marginalized backgrounds, they must adopt an inquiry stance around ambitious pedagogy as part of their teacher identity. This requires us as teacher educators to do the same, as, given the critical need for effective teachers in urban settings, it is necessary for us to examine our own beliefs and actions as we create space for our PSTs to develop pedagogies that help them disrupt traditional structures through systematic incorporation of asset based, culturally responsive approaches.

Limitations and future directions

There are several limitations to this study. First, our data was collected during a single semester and was the first time our team implemented the video reflection session in our integrated field experience model. As a result, we were unable to implement changes to the structure of the session that we noted from the feedback derived from the post-practicum questionnaire. This, along with the relatively small sample size, makes it difficult to generalize our results. Second, there are many unique and complex factors that teachers in urban settings must grapple with, some of which are transferable across settings, but likely not across all settings. Additional iterations of a similar video reflection session in other urban settings could help to confirm and counter the claims made herein.

Positionality also matters here, which the authors of this research team do not possess, therefore it is possible that the PSTs who did not engage in this activity were not noticing. It is also possible that some of those PSTs included our students of color, and it is important to note that video in urban settings has implications for bodies of color that we, as white educators, were not able to attend to in ways that mirrored our students. It is important for teacher educators to invest in reflection across modes, in ways that do not mimic surveillance as a way of supporting students of color to engage deeply in spaces of education.

As we move forward, in addition to using the feedback and insights from our PSTs to revise and refine the video reflection processes in our teacher preparation program, our team noted that it would be also worthwhile to collect and analyze the actual documentation participants submitted as part of the reflection process in addition to the survey instrument analyzed in this paper. We did not initially collect these as data sources to ensure participants felt comfortable in honestly and openly sharing their candid thoughts on the activity through the questionnaire. However, this additional data would help us better understand the extent to which PSTs’ self-reported instances of noticing, reflecting, analyzing, and taking up feedback in the survey aligned with the actual content of their written reflections and goals submitted at the end of the activity (i.e., did they actually engage in noticing that would be considered professional noticing of ambitious pedagogy, or were they picking up on less nuanced aspects of their lesson). We recognize that our work, in addition to that of others in the field, can continue to enhance and refine our understanding of how video reflection can lead PSTs into spaces where they are able to immediately implement the things they are noticing and learning. Given the need to create teachers who engage in reflection and ambitious pedagogy in ways that are culturally responsive and acknowledge the assets of their students, it is of critical importance for teacher educators to improve upon and even expedite the process of PSTs’ noticing development as an equity lever.

Conclusion

As teacher educators continue to explore structures that develop reflective practitioners, this study adds to the literature on the ways that intentionally crafted video reflection activities can foster meaningful, authentic experiences for PSTs that facilitates them through the teacher stages of concerns and helps them to begin to notice and conceptualize opportunities to engage in ambitious pedagogy. Given the ongoing need to close opportunity gaps for students, particularly those in historically marginalized groups and in urban settings, it is paramount that we identify the most effective ways to both support PST development in ways that help them to thrive as culturally responsive educators as well as promote their longevity in the field. Providing space for them to learn to notice early on in their programs and modeling effective practices to hone their noticing as they move into the profession, is a noteworthy area of continued research across PK-12 teacher education.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Appendix A.

Coding Manual- Mapping Codes to Reflection Framing

Prompt 1. What were the benefits of engaging in the video reflection activity?

Initial Codes	Tie to the Conceptual Framework (Process or Outcome)	Description of Code	Example from the Data
Receiving Feedback	Take up of feedback (Outcome)	Hearing feedback from peers helped them reflect on grows/glows	“Getting feedback is always valuable” (Participant 28)
New Ideas from Peers	Take up of feedback (Outcome)	Instructional strategies or ideas to try in future lessons	“Loved getting more ideas on how I could have done things. Ideas that I would not have even thought of.” (Participant 1)
Self-Reflection	Critical analysis; professional noticing (Outcome)	Students describe it as an opportunity to reflect on the strengths and areas of growth about their teaching	“Some of the benefits of engaging in the video reflection activity were I was challenged to focus on myself, the students, and the actual content I was teaching in the small group.” (Participant 33)
Video as an External View of Teaching	Professional noticing (Outcome)	Objectively seeing things about teaching in the video they may not be aware of in the moment	“It is helpful to watch yourself from an outside perspective, you are able to pick up on more things that are happening.” (Participant 30)
Goal Setting	Implementation of feedback in teaching (Outcome)	Feedforward, using the feedback in future experiences	“It gave us the opportunity to reflect on our teaching and highlight the things that we did well while also figuring out what we need to work on and improve for the future. “ (Participant 38)
Purposeful Activity Structure	Process for Reflection (Process)	Watching video multiple times, with different purposes focused reflections	“We looked at our video multiple times and each time it was for a different purpose. This helped me really think about what I did great and what I could improve on.” (Participant 15)
Low Stakes Activity	Process	Not graded, practice before having to teach in front of students, etc.	“I appreciated the two times we videoed our lessons. It was a great way to keep me accountable without the pressure of being observed. I saw the video lessons as a scrimmage, while other lessons were practice, and the observations were the games.” (Participant 23)
Not Beneficial	Counterexample of Outcomes	Students stated no/little value in the activity	“I personally think it’s okay, but I don’t think I get much out of it as I do by being observed by someone.” (Participant 36)
“I liked it”	Counter-example critical reflection and professional noticing (Outcomes)	Not much depth or description of what was beneficial	“Being able to watch myself teach was a great personal reflection.” (Participant 31)

Prompt 2. What were the challenges of engaging in the video reflection activity?.

Initial Codes	Tie to the Conceptual Framework (Process or Outcome)	Description of Code	Example from the Data
Usefulness of Peer Feedback	Counterexample of take up of feedback (Outcome)	Peers didn’t always have suggestions, everyone had the same issues so couldn’t help one another.	“A lot of the people in my group had similar areas of growth and/or keepers so some of the feedback felt a little repetitive.” (Participant 20)
Engaging in Self-Reflection	Counterexample of critical reflection and professional noticing (Outcome)	Students expressed struggling to find positives, things they would do differently, self-critique.	“Making sure you are positive about your teaching while also being critical and holding yourself to higher standards.” (Participant 39)
Watching Self on Video	Processes for Reflection; Professional noticing (Outcome)	Students found it uncomfortable to watch themselves teach	“Nobody likes watching themselves on video, That is about the only negative I can think of! Truly this is a great idea to do video reflections!” (Participant 7)
Video as a Distraction	Processes for Reflection; Counter- example of professional noticing (Outcome)	Sometimes the video was not representative of teaching because students and/or teacher acted differently while being recorded	“The only challenges I had with the video was how my students acted differently while videoing, either shutting down or acting out.” (Participant 23)
Logistics	Processes	Issues with technology, finding a good chunk of video	“With multiple different big assignments going on it was hard to create time management sometimes. With having to fit everything in, in a short amount of time it got stressful at times when preparing multiple different lessons.” (Participant 8)
Structure of the Activity	Processes	Time to complete tasks during the activity, in person vs. asynchronous, too many prompts for short video clip, when/how to complete the growth document…	“I think it was challenging to engage in reflection for such a long period of time though it was nice to hear reflection and feedback from peers.” (Participant 24)
Not useful	Counterexample of Outcomes	Students stated no/little value in the activity	“I did not feel like there was a major purpose to the video reflection, so it made it hard to engage in the experience. I felt like I was just getting a surface level idea of my teaching.” Participant 47)

Prompt 3. What ways did the video reflection activity impact your overall field experience?.

Initial Codes	Tie to the Conceptual Framework (Process or Outcome)	Description of Code	Example from the Data
Peer Feedback	Take up of feedback (Outcome)	Opportunities to hear suggestions, grows and glows, ideas to use in field	“I honestly felt like this helped me improve so much because I was able to get multiple different feedback opportunities from my peers. I was able to hear different suggestions, but also what went well from my peers as well.” (Participant 9)
Feedforward	Take up of feedback; active classroom application and anticipated application (Outcome)	Plans to implement ideas from peers in future lessons or practicums	“The video reflection helped me to know how I would change a future lesson or how I would change certain things in my lesson to make it work better the next time I taught it.” (Participant 16)
Critical Reflection on Teaching	Critical reflection; professional noticing (Outcome)	Ability to self-reflect on their own strengths and weaknesses	“It helped me get a better understanding of what things I need to work on and what things I was successful in.” (Participant 17)
“I liked it”	Counterexample critical reflection and professional noticing (Outcome)	No detail	“I liked looking back on the videos, I thought that they did really help me and were fun to watch.” (Participant 6)
Not useful	Counterexample of Outcomes	Students stated no/little value in the activity	“It did not impact my field experience as it was after practicum.” (Participant 44)

Prompt 4. In what ways could the video reflection activity be improved upon for future iterations?.

Initial Codes	Tie to the Conceptual Framework (Process or Outcome)	Description of Code	Example from the Data
Timing during field	Counterexample of active classroom implementation (Outcomes via better processes)	Happen earlier in the field experience (vs. last week with only two days to implement feedback)	“I would say possibly having it earlier in the semester so students have time to be able to work on the suggestions of the growth area so they get practice in what their peers suggest.” (Participant 9)
Structure of the Activity	Suggestions to improve feedback; active classroom implementation opportunities; professional noticing development (Outcomes via better processes)	Changing things like time to reflect, more small group time, timing of when the document is filled out, more time on strategy discussion vs viewing videos, remote vs asynchronous.	“I really believe that students should show their videos to a small group of peers. Having peers see the video for themselves I think would help them give more specific feedback to the person.” (Participant 18)
Logistics	Processes	Issues with technology (e.g., trimming videos, who records and how)	“I think it would be helpful to have my partner record the video next time so I can see a wider angle.” (Participant 31)