Questioning behaviours and patterns of prospective teachers on practicum

Abstract

A single group pre-test, post-test quasi-experimental design was utilized to triangulate quantitative and qualitative data obtained from a questionnaire, field notes, classroom observation, and practicum test scores, to determine changes in the questioning behaviours and practices of 31 prospective teachers involved in a three-week practicum exercise. Paired-samples t-tests were conducted to compare pre-test and post-test scores on participants’ level of confidence in asking focussing, prompting, probing, and redirecting questioning. Findings of the study revealed significant differences in participants’ pre-test and post-test scores for prompting questions. Based on Cohen's convention for a large effect (d =.80), the effect size for this analysis (d = 0.82) was found to be large. Analysis of classroom observation and field notes obtained from practicum supervisors also revealed a general improvement in participants’ questioning behaviours and patterns after the application of an instructional video.

Keywords:

• questioning behaviours and patterns
• prospective teachers
• practicum

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Questioning is regarded as an integral part of the teaching and learning process. Socrates himself saw teaching as the art of asking questions. However, research has shown that some teachers have not mastered the art of effective questioning. Such teachers spend most of their instructional time asking mainly low-level cognitive questions, which encourage regurgitation of facts, rather than higher-order questions, which stimulate lively classroom discussion and challenge critical thinking. Previous studies assume that many practising teachers may not be trained specifically in the art of effective questioning. This study investigates the possible outcome of prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns when appropriate scaffolding is applied in a teacher education setting.

1. Introduction

This study on the questioning patterns and behaviours of prospective teachers is a follow-up on previous research, which explored teachers’ approach to questioning in the primary and secondary classroom. Findings of that study suggested that many teachers actually believed that they were asking divergent questions when in fact most of the time was spent on procedural, factual questions that did little to stimulate critical thinking and lively classroom discussion. The study concluded with the assumption that many practising teachers may not be trained specifically in the art of effective questioning (Joseph, 2018, p. 10).

This current study investigates the possible outcome of prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns when appropriate scaffolding is applied in a teacher education setting. While post-lesson conferencing provides an opportunity to address gaps in student questioning skills and teaching in general, not much is done to incorporate direct instruction as another form of scaffolding during practicum. Supported by recent research and scholarship, this study explores the use of instructional video as a tool for strengthening teacher questioning skills during a three-week practicum exercise.

2. Literature review

2.1. Questioning for classroom discussion

Research suggests that teachers devote a considerable amount of instructional time asking questions (Levin & Long, 1981; Stevens, 1912). These questions range from convergent (closed to one right answer) to divergent questions, which according to Walsh and Sattes (2015), “engage students in higher-level processing of information moving beyond the mere regurgitation of textbook or teacher answers” (p. 7). Prospective teachers are often taught to plan questions before-hand to facilitate greater student motivation and engagement as well as critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Paul & Elder, 2008; Tofade et al., 2013). Fisher and Frey (2011) also encourage prospective teachers to include knowledge and application questions that provide students with factual information to tackle complex questions.

There is general consensus among teacher educators that classroom questions should address all cognitive domains provided that the desired learning outcomes are kept in mind and a good mix of questions is used during each teaching session (Christenbury & Kelly, 1983; Tofade et al., 2013). Notwithstanding attempts to prepare prospective teachers for effective questioning in the classroom, some teachers continue to spend most of their time asking mainly low-level cognitive questions, which encourage regurgitation of facts rather than higher-order questions, which stimulate lively classroom discussion (Phillips & Duke, 2001; Sellappah et al., 1998; Wilen, 1991, 2001).

2.2. Post-lesson conferencing and scaffolding

Teacher educators have attempted to assist prospective teachers through post-lesson conferences during the practicum period. This type of assistance or scaffolding is an essential process to guide prospective teachers in developing effective questioning skills and sound professional knowledge (Menaa et al., 2016). Several researchers see the role of dialogue and interaction in post-lesson feedback sessions as a crucial component of scaffolding (Puntambekar & Kolodner, 2005; San Martín, 2018; Wertsch, 1979).

Another aspect of scaffolding is the use of instructional video as a valuable tool for supporting teacher learning (Brophy, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Goldman et al., 2007). While in itself a video may not be effective, its usefulness improves when it is embedded in an instructional programme (Bayram, 2012; Blomberg et al., 2014). Several researchers also concur that video usage can go a long way in supporting student learning (Gomez et al., 2008; Jackman, 2019; Jackman & Roberts, 2014; Krammer et al., 2006; Seidel et al., 2005; Van Es, 2009). In this current study an instructional video is used as an independent variable manipulation to determine changes in prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns.

2.3. Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to examine various questioning behaviours and patterns of prospective teachers before and after the application of an instructional video supported by post-lesson feedback sessions. The following research question was employed for this study: Does direct instruction in questioning strategies make a difference in prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns?

3. Theoretical framework

3.1. Teacher questioning behaviours and patterns

The theoretical framework of the study is informed by early works done by Stevens (1912) and Levin and Long (1981) on teacher questioning behaviours and patterns. Levin and Long (1981) indicate that teachers spend approximately 80% of the school day asking as many as 300–400 questions to students. Over a century ago, Stevens (1912) made a similar observation and projected that four-fifths of school time was occupied with question-and-answer sessions, with high school teachers asking approximately 395 questions per day.

3.2. Socratic epistemology

The study is also influenced by Socratic epistemology seen in the works of Paul and Elder (2008), who identify three broad categories of Socratic questioning (spontaneous, exploratory and focussed) to support critical thinking and active classroom discussion. They suggest that spontaneous Socratic discussions are useful when students become interested in a topic; when they raise an important issue or when they are on the brink of grasping or integrating new insight. Exploratory Socratic questioning is used to identify where students are clear or fuzzy in their thinking; and can be useful also for introducing a topic or reviewing content. Focussed questioning presents opportunities for students to engage in extended discussion where they discover, develop, and share ideas in a group setting.

3.3. Questioning for classroom discussion

The research is also influenced by studies conducted by Walsh and Sattes (2015) on questioning for classroom discussion. These authors explain how four practices of quality questioning support thoughtful discussion: (1) framing of focus questions to initiate and sustain student thinking and interactions, (2) promoting the equitable participation of students to ensure they are responsible for formulating responses and contributing to the discussion, (3) scaffolding of student comments to sustain and deepen thinking and understanding, and (4) creating a classroom culture that supports thoughtful and respectful discourse (Walsh & Sattes, 2015, p. 9).

The theoretical framework for this study, therefore, is rooted in Socratic epistemology and utilizes an instructional video as a means of bolstering prospective teachers’ questioning skills for effective classroom discussion. The instructional video concentrates on the following four types of questions at all levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy:

1. Focussing questions

2. Prompting questions

3. Probing questions

4. Redirecting questions

4. Methodology

A single group pre-test, post-test quasi-experimental design was utilized to triangulate quantitative and qualitative data obtained from a questionnaire, field notes, classroom observation, and practicum test scores, to determine changes in the questioning behaviours and practices of prospective teachers involved in a three-week practicum exercise. Because this research design does not use random sampling, and there is no control group, the potential for low internal validity increases.

4.1. Participants

A purposive sample of 31 prospective teachers was selected to participate in the study. These respondents were final-year students enrolled in a four-year Bachelor of Education programme at a tertiary education institution in Trinidad and Tobago.

4.2. Instrument

This study utilized a survey instrument with 28 items covering one main objective arising from the research question outlined above. Using a 5-point Likert-type scale, respondents were asked to express their opinions about their questioning patterns and behaviours. The instrument was pilot-tested and feedback from that activity was used to improve the instrument before formally distributing the questionnaires to the research sample. Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure internal consistency or reliability for 25 of the items used in the Likert scale. The result was .879, which indicates a high level of internal consistency for the items used in the scale.

4.3. Procedure and analyses

Post-lesson conferences were conducted to provide feedback to student teachers in several areas of classroom teaching including the use of effective questioning to stimulate classroom discussion. These sessions were conducted either with individual prospective teachers or in small groups when necessary. During each session, practicum supervisors discussed a range of issues including set induction; closure and lesson summary; use of resources; classroom management strategies; questioning skills and general pedagogical proficiency. At the end of each feedback session, prospective teachers were challenged to improve on areas identified for the next practicum session. Each feedback session lasted approximately twenty minutes.

Pre-testing was done by way of a questionnaire, which asked participants to express their opinions about their questioning patterns and behaviours. An instructional video was then used as an independent variable manipulation where participants were given specific instruction on effective classroom questioning one week after the start of a three-week practicum exercise. This instructional video concentrated on the following types of questions:

• Focussing questions, which serve to focus student attention on the day’s lesson. They are also used to determine what students have learnt, to motivate and arouse student interest at the start or during the lesson, or to check student understanding of the concept during or at the end of a lesson. Example: “What is the distance of the Moon from the Earth?”

• Prompting questions, where teachers use hints and clues to aid students in answering questions or to assist them in correcting an initial response. Example: If you were going to the Moon from the Earth, how long would you be away from home, Kate?

I don’t know

Well, let us see if we can figure it out. If it takes 120 hours to get from the earth to the moon, how many days will that be?

[Pause} I don’t know

OK. How many hours are in one day?

[Pause] 24 hours

Good. So, if we divide 120 hours by 24 hours, how many days will that be?

[Pause]. 5 days

Very good, Kate?

• Probing questions, which teachers use to develop clarification and critical awareness, or refocus a student’s response to the question. Example: Could you explain what you mean by that? Tell us more … What reasons do you have for saying that? Are you sure about this?

• Redirecting questions, where the teacher asks several students to respond to the same question based on previous responses from other classmates. This type of questioning is a good way for a teacher to build broader participation among students in classroom discussions (Moore, 2007).

Example: “How many of you would like to go to the Moon?”

Billy, why would you like to go to the moon?

Mary, do have another reason why you would like to go to the moon?

After the remaining two weeks of practicum, a post-test was conducted utilizing the same questionnaire administered during the pre-testing phase at the end of week one. A Paired-samples t-test was conducted to determine whether there were any significant differences between the pre-test and post-test scores. Results from practicum test scores, field notes and classroom observation also assisted in the analysis of the main research question.

4.4. Ethical considerations

Since this study focused on human subjects, the researchers were ethically responsible for safeguarding the rights and welfare of the participants. Therefore, to protect respondents from unnecessary mental pressure, we obtained informed consent from the subjects who were informed of their rights to confidentiality and anonymity. Respondents were informed also of their rights to withdraw participation at any time. We also gave participants the opportunity to receive results of the study if necessary.

5. Results

5.1. Demographic information

Thirty-one (31) final-year prospective teachers participated in a survey, which required them to express their opinions about their questioning patterns and behaviours. As shown in Table 1, the majority of participants, 90.3%, (n = 28) were females, while 9.7%, (n = 3) were males. The sample was categorized according to teaching experience and class level taught while on practicum. Table 1 shows that the majority of participants, 90.3% (n = 28), had no more than four years’ teaching experience, while 9.7% (n = 3) participants taught for over four years. The majority of participants, 77.4% (n = 24) did their practicum at the primary school level, while 22.6% (n = 7) of the participants taught at the secondary school level.

Table 1. Participants’ demographic information

Demographic Variables	Categories	n	%
Gender	Females Males	28 3	90.3 9.7
Teaching Experience	0–4 years >4 years	28 3	90.3 9.7
Class Level Taught at Practicum	Primary School (Infants—Standard One) Primary School (Standard Two-Three) Primary School (Standard Four—Five) Secondary School (Form One—Three) Secondary School (Form Four-Five)	16 7 1 5 2	51.6 22.6 3.2 16.1 6.5
Total		31	100

5.2. Research question

Does direct instruction in questioning strategies make a difference in prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns?

Table 2 provides results of participants’ questioning behaviour and patterns before and after the application of an instructional video.

Table 2. Sample items and participants’ responses from questionnaire before and after the application of an instructional video

Sample Items from Questionnaire	Types of Questions	Responses before Video	Responses after Video
I challenge my students by asking questions that arouse their curiosity.	Focussing, Socratic	Sometimes—2.9% Often—41.9% Always—22.6%	Sometimes −12.9% Often −22.6% Always- 61.3%
I ask questions to establish a foundation for my work.	Focussing, Convergent, Socratic	Sometimes −12.9% Often—48.4% Always—38.7%	Sometimes −6.5% Often −41.9% Always- 51.6%
I ask questions to encourage students to listen to each other’s opinions.	Redirecting, Socratic	Sometimes—22.6% Often—48.4% Always—22.6%	Sometimes −12.9% Often −41.9% Always- 45.2%
I ask questions so that students can interpret, analyze, and think critically.	Divergent	Sometimes—38.7% Often—38.7% Always—22.6%	Sometimes −16.1% Often −51.6% Always- 32.3%
I ask questions to build class rapport.	Redirecting, Divergent, Socratic	Sometimes—35.5% Often—41.9% Always—16.1%	Sometimes −22.6% Often −41.9% Always- 35.5%
I ask questions to discover special interests in my students.	Focussing, Socratic	Sometimes—32.3% Often—45.2% Always—19.4%	Sometimes −12.9% Often −58.1% Always- 29.0%
I redirect questions to various students to get diverse answers or opinions.	Redirecting, Divergent, Socratic	Sometimes −41.9% Often—48.4% Always—6.5%	Sometimes −12.9% Often −48.4% Always- 38.7%
I allow for multiple responses to my questions.	Redirecting, Divergent, Socratic	Sometimes—25.8% Often—45.2% Always—29.0%	Sometimes −19.4% Often −41.9% Always- 38.7%
I encourage students to speak to each other when responding to my questions.	Divergent, Socratic	Sometimes—32.3% Often—35.5% Always—3.2%	Sometimes −35.5% Often −45.2% Always- 12.9%
I use questions to help students modify their responses.	Prompting, Probing, Divergent	Sometimes—19.4% Often—61.3% Always—19.4%	Sometimes −9.7% Often −48.4% Always- 41.9%
I avoid asking one-word-answer questions.	Divergent	Sometimes—25.5% Often—35.5% Always—35.5%	Sometimes −6.5% Often −29.0% Always- 64.5%
I encourage students to ask questions in class.	Divergent, Socratic	Sometimes—25.8% Often—32.3% Always—22.6%	Sometimes −12.9% Often −41.9% Always- 38.7%

As shown in Table 2, there was a marked improvement in participants’ questioning behaviour and patterns after the application of an instructional video. This improvement can be seen in the use of different types of questions including focussing, prompting, probing, redirecting, divergent, convergent, and Socratic questioning at all levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Table 3 provides the results from classroom observation and field notes on participants’ questioning behaviours and patterns while on practicum. Four practicum supervisors made these observations before and after the application of an instructional video on questioning strategies.

Table 3. Classroom observation and field notes on participants’ questioning behaviours and patterns before and after the introduction of an instructional video

Comments before the application of an instructional video at the end of week one

Comments after the application of an instructional video at the end of week three

When questions were asked, students were being called upon to respond immediately. There was no planning of key questions to be asked throughout the lesson. Students were not being called by their names. Whole class answering was encouraged. This led to classroom management issues. No probing questions were asked to elicit responses leading to development of concepts. When the first student did not answer the question correctly, the teacher provided the answer. In most instances, there was not a fair distribution of questions throughout the class. There was very little use of redirecting questions. Questions were asked at the lower end of Bloom’s taxonomy. In some instances, the teacher called the students’ names before asking the question. In some instances, when students gave inaccurate responses, there was no attempt to modify the questions by simplifying or using different words and phrases. The teacher gave the correct response. Students were not encouraged to ask questions. In a few instances, students were praised for their responses. Questions did not flow smoothly to connect the different phases of the lesson.

There was evidence of key questions planned and used throughout the lesson. There were attempts to restructure the questions whenever the students did not give correct responses. Students were praised generously when they answered questions or even attempted to answer questions. Further questions were asked to elicit responses leading to concept development. Questions were asked before students were called upon to answer. There were attempts to ask questions at all levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, even at the highest level. When implementing discussion as a strategy, students were given the opportunity to ask questions. During Science and Mathematics lessons, there were attempts to ask questions that challenged students. All students practised “wait time” when they asked questions. In most instances, questions asked during the introductory phase of the lesson served to introduce the topic and to establish the main ideas listed in the objectives.

As shown in Table 3, practicum supervisors reported a general improvement in participants’ questioning behaviours and patterns after the application of an instructional video on questioning.

Table 4 provides the results of test scores of participants’ questioning behaviours and patterns while on practicum. Four practicum supervisors provided test scores on participants’ performance before and after the application of an instructional video on questioning strategies. A scale of 0 to 4 was used to assess participants’ questioning skills in the following categories:

• Use of focussing, prompting, probing, and redirecting questions

• Clear and direct questions

• Use of Bloom’s Taxonomy

• Even distribution of questions among students

• Logical ordering of questions

• Use of group/whole class responses when necessary

• Encouraging audible response to questions by pupils

• Consistent use of wait time

Table 4. Practicum scores on participants’ questioning behaviours and patterns before and after the introduction of an instructional video

Number of Participants	Participants’ Scores (0–4) Before the Application of an Instructional Video at the end of week one	Participants’ Scores (0–4) After the Application of an Instructional Video at the end of week three
1	3	4
2	3	4
3	2	4
4	3	4
5	2	3
6	2	4
7	2	3
8	3	4
9	3	4
10	3	4
11	3	4
12	3	3
13	2	4
14	1	3
15	2	3
16	2	4
17	3	4
18	2	3
19	2	4
20	2	3
21	3	4
22	3	4
23	3	4
24	3	3
25	3	3
26	3	3
27	3	3
28	2	3
29	3	4
30	3	3
31	3	3

Analysis of the test scores reveals that the majority of participants, 77.4% (n = 24), showed improved questioning skills after the application of an instructional video on questioning. Only 22.6% (n = 7) of the participants showed no improvement in their questioning behaviours and patterns.

Table 5 provides the results of a paired-samples t-test conducted to compare pre-test and post-test scores on participants’ level of confidence in asking focussing, prompting, probing, and redirecting questioning.

Table 5. Paired-samples t-test on prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns

Items	Pre-test		Post-test		t	p	Cohen’s d
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
1. Level of Confidence in Asking Focussing Questions	4.55	1.150	5.19	.980	2.37	.021	0.59
2. Level of Confidence in Asking Prompting Questions	4.61	.919	5.35	.877	3.25	.002	0.82
3. Level of Confidence in Asking Probing Questions	4.65	.877	5.26	.893	2.27	.008	0.68
4. Level of Confidence in Asking Redirecting Questions	4.52	1.122	5.35	.950	3.17	.002	0.79

*Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

With regard to item #1, the mean pre-test score for focussing questions is 4.55, while the mean post-test score is 5.19. The data were subjected to the t-test for paired samples, with the results showing a statistically significant gain (t = 2.37; n = 31; p = .021). Cohen’s d was estimated at 0.59, which is a moderate effect based on Cohen’s (1988) guidelines. The results suggest that participants’ confidence level in asking focussing questions improved moderately after the application of an instructional video at the end of the first week of practicum.

With regard to item #2, the mean pre-test score for prompting questions is 4.61, while the mean post-test score is 5.35. The data were subjected to the t-test for paired samples, with the results showing a statistically significant gain (t = 3.25; n = 31; p = .002). Based on Cohen’s (1988) convention for a large effect (d = .80), the effect size for this analysis (d = 0.82) was found to be large. These results suggest that the difference in participants’ confidence level in the pre-test and post-test is noteworthy.

With regard to item #3, the mean pretest score for probing questions is 4.65, while the mean posttest score is 5.26. The data were subjected to the t-test for paired samples, with the results showing a statistically significant gain (t = 2.72; n = 31; p = .008). Based on Cohen’s (1988) convention for a large effect (d = .80), the effect size for this analysis (d = 0.68) was found to be medium to large. The results suggest that participants’ confidence level in asking probing questions improved moderately after the application of an instructional video at the end of the first week of practicum.

With regard to item #4, the mean pre-test score for redirecting questions is 4.52, while the mean posttest score is 5.35. The data were subjected to the t-test for paired samples, with the results showing a statistically significant gain (t = 3.17; n = 31; p = .002). Cohen’s d was estimated at 0.79, which is a large effect based on Cohen’s (1988) guidelines. These results suggest that the difference in participants’ confidence level in the pre-test and post-test is noteworthy.

6. Discussion

This study explored teacher questioning behaviours and patterns by examining the following research question: Does direct instruction in questioning strategies make a difference in prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns?

An examination of participants’ responses from the questionnaire administered before and after the application of an instructional video showed a marked improvement in prospective teachers’ questioning behaviour and patterns after exposure to the video on effective questioning. This improvement can be seen in the use of different types of questions including focussing, prompting, probing, redirecting, divergent, convergent, and Socratic questioning at all levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. This supports the views of several researchers that an instructional video can be used effectively to scaffold student learning when it is embedded in an instructional programme (Bayram, 2012; Blomberg et al., 2014; Brophy, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Goldman et al., 2007).

Analysis of classroom observation and field notes obtained from practicum supervisors revealed a general improvement in participants’ questioning behaviours and patterns after the application of an instructional video. Before the application of the instructional video, practicum supervisors observed that prospective teachers spent very little time pre-planning questions for classroom discussion. They also observed that prospective teachers asked no probing questions to develop clarification and critical awareness or refocus students’ response to questions asked in the classroom. Practicum supervisors also noticed that very little attempts were made to redirect questions in order to build what Moore (2007) describes as broader participation among students in classroom discussions.

However, after the end of the three-week practicum exercise, prospective teachers showed marked improvement in their ability to redirect questions and engage in deeper probing to elicit responses and heighten students’ critical awareness. This supports what Black (2001) and Goodman and Berntson (2000) said about the value of effective questioning in developing in students critical thinking skills, motivating them to pay attention and learn, increasing inquiry and investigative skills and deepening their cumulative knowledge base. Practicum test scores also mirrored a gradual improvement in prospective teachers’ questioning behaviours and patterns. Analysis of these test scores revealed that the majority of participants, 77.4% (n = 24), showed improved questioning skills after the application of an instructional video on questioning, while only 22.6% (n = 7) of the participants showed no improvement in their questioning patterns and behaviours.

Teacher questioning behaviours and patterns were further examined by asking participants to report their level of confidence in asking four specific types of questions (focussing, prompting, probing, and redirecting questions) to stimulate classroom discussion. These results were analyzed through a paired-samples t-test conducted to compare pre-test and post-test scores on participants’ level of confidence in asking these specific types of questions. The results suggest that in the pre-test and post-test, the difference is noteworthy regarding participants’ confidence level in asking prompting and redirecting questions. These results compare favourably with test scores and classroom observation made by practicum supervisors during the three-week practicum exercise.

While large effect sizes were reported for prompting (d = 0.82) and redirecting (d = 0.79) questions, smaller effect sizes were reported for focussing (d = 0.59) and probing (d = 0.68) questions. This suggests that prospective teachers need more time to hone their questioning skills in these critical areas. For example, proper use of focussing questions go a long way in assisting teachers in determining what pupils have learnt as well as assessing their understanding of what is taught during or at the end of a lesson. Focussing questions are also useful in centering students’ attention on the day’s lesson, while motivating and arousing their interest at the start of the lesson. If this is not achieved early in the lesson, then prospective teachers are likely to struggle to achieve the desired learning outcomes set out in the lesson.

Prospective teachers also need to demonstrate mastery in asking probing questions such as What do you mean by that? Could you elaborate on that point? Can you explain more fully? Moore (2007) also suggests that in situations where student responses lack depth, teachers should ask students to supply additional information through the use of probing questions. The ability to probe is critical if prospective teachers are to assist pupils in clarifying their thoughts on a given topic.

7. Conclusion and recommendations

7.1. Conclusion

Questioning plays an important role in the teaching and learning process. It fosters interaction between teachers and students, while facilitating student understanding of concepts taught in the classroom (Fusco, 2012; Morgan & Saxton, 1991). Through effective use of focussing questionings, teachers can check student understanding of the concept during or at the end of a lesson. While prompting questions use hints and clues to aid students in answering questions or to assist them in correcting an initial response, probing questions are used to develop clarification and critical awareness or refocus a response to the question. Skillful use of redirecting questions helps teachers to obtain responses from several students on the same question based on previous responses from other classmates. The extent to which prospective teachers can leverage these questioning skills, determines the level of student participation in classroom discussions. To achieve this, prospective teachers must spend time planning specific questions before-hand to encourage classroom discussion and challenge critical thinking. Conscious effort must also be made on the part of prospective teachers to apply effective questioning strategies when engaging in the teaching and learning process.

This current research highlights the positive impact of direct instruction in questioning strategies on teacher performance in the classroom. Findings of the study show significant differences in the pre-test and post-test scores. While it is reasonable to assume that these differences may be attributed to the independent variable manipulation (instructional video), other factors must also be considered. Because the research design was not strictly experimental and there was no control group, this inference is uncertain, and the difference may be due to extraneous variables such as order effects or regression towards the mean. Still, the study is significant because it highlights the importance of robust teaching and modelling of effective questioning behaviours at teacher education institutions.

7.2. Recommendations

• There is need for further investigation into the impact of post-lesson conferences on general teacher performance during practicum

• Further exploration should also be done into the role of scaffolding and mentoring in a Caribbean teacher education setting

• There is need for the application of a true experimental design to further explore the impact of direct instruction in questioning strategies on teacher performance in the classroom.

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Stephen Joseph

Stephen Joseph is a Professor of Curriculum & Instruction and the Assistant Vice President for Undergraduate Studies at the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT). His current areas of research are in curriculum studies, history education, teacher education, and education reform.

Marlene Thomas

Marlene Thomas is a Senior Instructor and Programme Coordinator with responsibility for practicum at the Centre for Education Programmes, University of Trinidad and Tobago. Her current areas of research are in teacher education and curriculum studies.