Cultural learning in the adjustment process of academic expatriates

Abstract

The recent rise in academic expatriates brings to the forefront the need for research to further explore this specific group of self-initiated expatriates. The purpose of this research is to study the relationship between cultural learning and adjustment of academic expatriates. Cultural learning of an academic expatriate is the strengthening and development of his/her cultural understanding, competence, and intelligence, whilst adjustment is the personal, social, and work adaptation leading to feelings of comfort towards the environment and better functioning. The main hypothesis is that increased cultural learning, which is manifested as cultural competence, is linked to well-adjusted academic expatriates. The dual theoretical framework is the theory of cultural learning and the model of cultural adjustment. The study was carried out amongst 103 academic expatriates in the UAE using quantitative methodology. The main conclusions are that: academic expatriates in the UAE are culturally competent and well adjusted; there is a positive relationship between cultural competence and adjustment in academic expatriates; cultural competence and adjustment increase with years of experience and age; expatriates from different cultural backgrounds to the host country adjust better and are more culturally competent.

Key words:

• academic expatriates
• cultural learning
• cultural adjustment
• United Arab Emirates

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

In recent times we witness an increase in academic expatriates. The adjustment of academic expatriates influences their job satisfaction, commitment and success. The purpose of this research is to study the relationship between cultural learning and adjustment of academic expatriates. Cultural learning of academic expatriates is the strengthening and development of their cultural understanding, competence and intelligence, whilst adjustment is the personal, social and work adaptation leading to feelings of comfort towards the environment and better functioning. The main hypothesis is that increased cultural learning is linked to well-adjusted academic expatriates. The main conclusions of this study are that: academic expatriates in the UAE are culturally competent and well adjusted; there is a positive relationship between cultural competence and adjustment; cultural competence and adjustment increase with years of experience and age; expatriates from different cultural backgrounds to the host country adjust better and are more culturally competent.

1. Introduction

In recent times academics have tended to be more mobile resulting in an increase in academic expatriates. Amongst reasons for this phenomenon are globalization; the marketing of higher education institutions around the world; an accessible global market for such institutions; increased mobility of academics; less reason to remain within a single university or home country (Trembath, 2015a). The adjustment of academic expatriates is central to their job satisfaction (Thomas & Lazarova, 2006), commitment (Thomas & Lazarova, 2006), and professional success (Kramer et al., 2001). In turn, the professional success is key to the research and teaching achievement of higher education institutions (Jonasson et al., 2017).

The purpose of this research is to study the relationship between cultural learning and the adjustment of academic expatriates. Research focusing on self-initiated expatriates is limited. On adjustment of expatriates within multi-national corporations, a lot has been written whilst little is known about the adjustment of self-initiated expatriates and specifically academic expatriates (Froese, 2012). Another contribution of this study is the analysis of differences between genders, culture of origin, years of experience, and professional rank. This adds to a deeper level of understanding of cultural learning and adjustment.

2. Research proposition

This study will test the following research proposition: Increased cultural learning is linked to well-adjusted academic expatriates. The theoretical justifications for this research proposition are based on the theory of cultural learning (Tomasello, 2016; Tomasello et al., 1993) and the model of cultural adjustment by Black (1988).

2.1. Theory

The theory of cultural learning is built on experimental and social psychology (Masgoret & Ward, 2006). This theory places emphasis on the element of socio-cultural adaptation (Furnham & Bochner, 1982) which is the ability to fit in a culture and, includes knowledge and skills in communication and social interaction. A later theory by Tomasello et al. (1993) explains that cultural learning is primarily a socio-cognitive skill that is learnt through other individuals and depends on how one understands the individuals from whom one learns. Tomasello et al. (1993) continue to explain that cultural learning may occur through imitation, instruction and collaborative learning.

The revised theory of cultural learning by Tomasello et al. (1993) stresses that people do not simply learn through others but there is a pressure to conform to culture and in conforming individuals contribute further to the spread of the culture (Tomasello, 2016). Tomasello (2016) adds that individuals are predisposed to conform. Group identification and conforming to the group is the important addition to the theory of cultural learning. People are prepared for cultural learning by having skills and motivations to collaborate with others. People do not just conform to culture to avoid negative consequences but also because they enter a relationship of collaboration and group mindedness that also helps reinforce culture.

In this study, cultural learning is measured using the cultural competence model by Schim and Miller (1999). Cultural competence is the incorporation of one’s cultural learning, specifically the facts, knowledge, and attitudes learnt in cultural learning, into everyday life. The measure by Schim and Miller (1999) assesses cultural diversity, cultural awareness, cultural sensitivity, and cultural competence behaviors.

The second theory in this theoretical framework is the cultural adjustment theory by Black (1988). Adjustment is defined as a sense of familiarity and comfort with a culture. Adjustment in this theory is further split into work adjustment, interaction adjustment, and general adjustment. Work adjustment entails adjusting to elements such as new policies, practices, norms, and job tasks of the new work environment. Interactional adjustment entails adjusting to interactions with host nations inside and outside the workplace. General adjustment is a broader overall adjustment with daily life in a new environment such as issues related to housing, leisure, and health care. This theory has been used as a theoretical framework to many studies (Al-Rahji et al., 2013; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005; Hechanova et al., 2003; Selmer, 2006a). In this study, adjustment is measured using the adjustment scale by Black and Stephens (1989) which is based on the above theory by Black (1988).

This theoretical framework has also been adopted by Bashir (2012) in a study on academic expatriates in the UAE. Findings by Bashir (2012) show that academic expatriates do well on work adjustment and adapt well to the work environment, they are also well adjusted in their living and housing conditions, as well as entertainment (general adjustment). Further results are also positive indicating good interaction adjustment and that academic expatriates are open to socialize with host country nationals (Bashir, 2012).

2.2. Empirical evidence

This study is based within the context of the United Arab Emirates. On the UAE culture, Al Mazrouei and Pech (2015) write that it is a mix of Arabic and Islamic culture as well as modern Western style. The UAE has a multinational population consisting of almost 80% expatriate citizens from a wide range of nationalities. It is therefore no surprise that academic expatriates in the United Arab Emirates outnumber academics of Emirati nationality. Kirk and Napier (2008) claim that the ratio of academic expatriates to academic Emiratis in 2004 to be nearly three to one. Austin et al. (2014) 10 years later continued to stress on the fact that the United Arab Emirates is heavily dependent on expatriate academics due to insufficient academics within the pool of qualified Emirati. On the other hand academic expatriates are also interested in working in the UAE for a diverse set of reasons such as are: adventure; travel opportunities; salaries; benefits (Austin et al., 2014).

In a study on the correlation between cultural learning and expatriate adjustment Kim et al. (2008) state that expatriates with a high level of cultural learning better adjust to new work and non-work environments in the host country. They conclude that such individuals gain more appropriate emotional and informational support through interactions with local people, resulting in better adjustment. In another study on cultural competence and expatriate adjustment Lee and Sukoco (2010) also confirm the direct and significant relationship between cultural competence and expatriate adjustment.

On the link between culture and adjustment there exists a debate in literature on whether similarities or differences between the expatriates’ culture of origin and host country culture, facilitate or hinder adjustment. The Cultural Distance Paradox argues that differences between one’s own culture and the host country culture may facilitate adjustment as the expatriate from a different culture anticipates such cultural differences, is less over confident, and learns more about the different culture s/he will be working in. On the other hand, people from similar cultures may not be prepared to look for differences in culture consequently facing harsh awakenings or simply missing cultural differences (Black et al., 1991; Hemmasi & Downes, 2013; Pinder & Schroeder, 1987; Selmer, 2007). Vromand and van Engen (2013) interpret the Cultural Distance Paradox writing about presumed cultural similarity and how this may lead to unmet expectations further resulting in poor adjustment.

Proponents of the opposing argument to the Cultural Distance Paradox argue that similarities between one’s own culture and the host culture facilitate adjustment (Babiker, Cox & Miller, 1980; Furnham & Bochner, 1986; Isakovic & Whitman, 2013; Ward & Kennedy, 1993). There are also studies stating a neutral position in this debate arguing that it may be as difficult to adjust to cultural similarity as it is to cultural dissimilarity (Selmer & Lauring, 2009).

The study by Isakovic and Whitman (2013) was also carried out amongst academic expatriates in the UAE and did not find evidence to support the Cultural Distance Paradox. Support was found for all three hypothesis related to the Cultural Distance Paradox, namely: culture novelty has a negative relationship with self-initiated expatriates’ cultural adjustment; culture novelty has a negative relationship with self-initiated expatriates’ interaction adjustment; culture novelty has a negative relationship with self-initiated expatriates’ work adjustment. Therefore, authors concluded that the greater the cultural differences the less the cultural, interaction, and work adjustment of academic expatriates in the UAE.

2.3. Hypothesis

The main hypothesis is that increased cultural learning, which is manifested as cultural competence, is linked to well-adjusted academic expatriates. The assumption is that maladjusted academic expatriates experience difficulties managing the everyday social encounters and that cultural learning leads to better adjustment. The null hypothesis is that increased cultural learning is not linked to well-adjusted academic expatriates.

3. Method

3.1. Target population and sample

A convenience sample of 103 academic expatriates across different tertiary education institutions and faculties in the UAE voluntarily participated in this study. Participants received an email explaining the purpose of this study as well as confidentiality for both participants and the institution they work for. The email also contained a link to an online questionnaire that is described below.

3.2. Data collection and instruments

The demographic data collected in the online questionnaire for the purpose of this study is age, level of education, job title, professional tenure, previous experience in the GCC, and culture of origin. The measure of cultural competence utilized is that by Schim and Miller (1999). This is a 25-item instrument utilizing a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The cultural competence assessment scale is split into two subscales. The first is the cultural competence behavior subscale and is composed of 17 items whilst the second is the cultural awareness and sensitivity subscale which is composed of 8 items. Two items were removed from the cultural competence behavior subscale for their non-applicability to the context of the research and therefore a total of 23 items made up the measure of cultural competence used in this study (Table 1). The two omitted items are I document cultural assessments and I include cultural assessment when I do client or family assessment. This measure has been tested for validity and reliability yielding positive results on both validity and reliability (Loftin et al., 2013).

Table 1. Items measuring cultural competence

Items
I find ways to adapt to students’ cultural preferences
I welcome feedback from co-workers about how I relate to others with different cultures
I avoid making generalizations about groups of people
I act to remove obstacles for people of different cultures when students identify them to me
I act to remove obstacles for people of different cultures when I identify them
I ask students to tell me about their expectations
I ask students to tell me about their own meanings
I welcome feedback from students about how I relate to others with different cultures
I document cultural adaptations I make with students
I recognize potential barriers to service that might be encountered by different people
I use a variety of sources to learn about the cultural heritage of other people
I seek information on cultural needs when I identify new students
I ask my co-workers not to make comments or jokes about cultural group characteristics in the workplace
I learn from my co-workers about people with different cultural heritages
I have resource books and other materials available to help me learn about students from different cultures
Even if I know about a person’s culture, I assess their personal preferences
Language barriers are not the only difficulties for students
Spirituality and religious beliefs are important aspects in many cultural groups
People with a common cultural background often have individual differences
I think that knowing about different cultural groups helps direct my work with students
Students may identify with more than one cultural group
I believe that everyone should be treated with respect no matter what their cultural heritage is
I understand that people from different cultures may define the concept of education in different ways

The Adjustment scale by Black and Stephens (1989) was also part of the online questionnaire. This consists of 14 items (Table 2) that are split into three subscales. Seven items for the cultural adjustment subscale, four items for the interactional adjustment subscale, and three items for the work adjustment subscale. Items are measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from completely adjusted to very unadjusted.

Table 2. Items measuring adjustment

Items
Living conditions in general
Housing conditions
Food
Shopping
Cost of living
Entertainment/recreation facilities and opportunities
Healthcare facilities
Socializing with host nationals
Interacting with host nations on a day to day basis
Interaction with host nations outside of work
Speaking with host nationals
Specific job responsibilities
Performance standards and expectations
Supervisory responsibilities

3.3. Analyses of data

The profile of the 103 participants is shown in Table 3 which demonstrates how the majority of participating academic expatriates: are between the ages of 45 and 54 (45%); have 12 years of experience or more (50.5%); and originate from a non-Arab culture (70%). The sample is equally split between Lecturers who do not have a PhD and Assistant Professors with a PhD.

Table 3. Participants’ profile

	Age	Years of experience	Originating culture
Lowest	1%—25 to 34 years old	5%—1 to 3 years	30% non-Arab
Highest	45%—45 to 54 years old	50.5%—more than 12 years	70% Arab

In investigating the relationship between the two dependent variables of cultural competence and adjustment the overall results on both measures (the cultural competence assessment scale and the adjustment scale) are analyzed also in relation to the four independent variables under study (age, rank, years of experience and originating culture). Pearson correlation is the statistics used to find the relationship between both measures and in turn, the latter’s relationships with the variables of culture, age, education, and experience; this is referred to as a first layer of study. When comparing within different sub-groups of the independent variables statistical hypothesis testing was adopted. This is referred to as the second layer of data analyses and digs deeper into the relationship between the dependent variables (cultural competence and adjustment) and the individual independent variables (culture, age, rank, and years of experience).

4. Results

4.1. Correlation analysis

The first layer of data analyses is to establish a correlation between the two sets of scores for the dependent variables in order to find proof of a relationships that is significant and valid within the group of academic expatriates. Results of the Pearson correlation indicate that there is a significant positive association between Cultural Competence and the Adjustment scale, (r (1) =.87, p < .001). Therefore, there is a strong positive relationship between the two scales utilized and analyzed in this study. Results of the regression analysis indicate that there is a collective significant effect between these two measures (F (1, 10) = 30.20, p < .001, R2 = .75). Once a significant and positive relationship was established between the two dependent variables further analyses using Pearson correlation was carried out to investigate whether such correlation is also reflected within the specific groups of the different independent variables.

The independent variable of culture of origin is split into the Arab and non-Arab group. The scores for cultural competence and adjustment are strongly and positively correlated both within the Arab (r (10) = .763, p = .006) and non-Arab (r (10) = .58, p = .006) sub-groups of the population. Strong correlations also result for the independent variable of experience. The scores for cultural adjustment and cultural competence are strongly and positively correlated within the group having 5 years or more of experience which is the group with highest overall scores (r (10) = 0.52, p = 0.01), as well as strongly positively correlated within the group with 0 to 1 years of experience (r (9) = 0.53, p = 0.01).

However, the scores for cultural adjustment and cultural competence are positively but moderately correlated within the age group 55 and above, which is the age group with highest overall scores (r (13) = 0.293, p = 0.002), and also moderately positively correlated for the age group 35 to 44 years (r (13) = 0.262, p = 0.01). Moderate correlations are also found within the independent variable of rank. The scores for cultural adjustment and cultural competence are moderately positively correlated within the group of lecturers which is the group with highest overall scores (r (11) = 0.34, p = 006), and strongly positively correlated within the group of assistant professors (r (11) = 0.71, p = 0.01).

4.2. Hypothesis testing

The second layer of data analyses explored how scores on both dependent variables (cultural competence and adjustment) vary in relation to the independent variables, hypothesis testing was carried out to investigate significant differences in the overall scores. Findings indicate that there is a moderate but significant difference in the overall scores for the groups from an Arabic culture of origin (M = 4.107; SD = .24) and non-Arabic culture of origin (M = 4.219; SD = .34); t (38) 2.03, p = .04. Hypothesis testing proved that there is significantly enough evidence to claim that there is an overall difference, although moderate, between participants form an Arab culture and those not originating from an Arab culture. Overall participants from a non-Arabic culture are more culturally competence and adjusted when both measures are used to provide an overall score.

Findings also indicate that there is a significant difference in the overall scores for the age group 35 to 44 years (M = 4.181; SD = 0.28) and the age group 55 and above (M = 4.303; SD = 0.29); t (38)2.68, p = 0.01. These are the extreme age groups for the 103 participants in this study. There is enough evidence to state that as age increases so does cultural adjustment and cultural competence.

With respect to years of experience results show that there is a significant difference in the overall scores for the group with 0 to 1 years of experience (M = 4.053; SD = 0.43) and the group with 5 years or more of experience (M = 4.212; SD = 0.31); t (38)3.25, p = 0.002. There is enough evidence to claim that cultural competence and adjustment improve over the years.

On rank which is directly related to PhD holders (Assistant Professors) and non-PhD (Lecturers) holders results indicate that there is a significant difference in the overall scores for the group of Assistant Professors holding a PhD (M = 4.037; SD = 0.31) and the group of Lecturers or non-PhD holders (M = 4.215; SD = 0.33); t(38)3.40, p < .001. There is enough evidence that lecturers do better on cultural competence and adjustment than assistant professors.

4.3. Summary of extreme scores

With regards to specific items, the mean and standard deviation of the items with the highest and lowest scores on the two scales of the cultural competence assessment scale by Schim and Miller (1999) (the cultural competence behavior subscale and cultural awareness and sensitivity subscale) are shown in Table 4. The items with the extreme scores on the adjustment scale by Black and Stephens (1989) are listed in Table 5 with their respective mean and standard deviation. Findings in Table 4 show an adjustment by participants in terms of practical matters and a lower adjustment were social relationships with nationals are concerned.

Table 4. Extreme scores on the cultural competence assessment scale

Scale	Item	Mean	Standard deviation
Cultural Competence Behaviour	I find ways to adapt to students’ cultural preferences	4.38	0.06
	I welcome feedback from co-workers about how I relate to others with different cultures	4.45	0.57
	I have resource books and other materials available to help me learn about students from different cultures	3.73	0.10
	Language barriers are not the only difficulties for students	3.55	0.105
Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity	I believe that everyone should be treated with respect no matter what their cultural heritage is	4.74	0.05
	I feel comfortable working with people from different cultures and ethnicity	4.55	0.06
	Even if I know about a person’s culture, I assess their personal preferences	4.02	0.07
	I feel comfortable discussing cultural issues in my class	3.84	0.08

Table 5. Extreme scores on the adjustment scale

Item	Mean	Standard deviation
Please indicate how adjusted you feel in the following areas. [Shopping]	4.52	0.07
Please indicate how adjusted you feel in the following areas. [Food]	4.41	0.8
Please indicate how adjusted you feel in the following areas. [Socializing with host nationals]	3.7	0.11
Please indicate how adjusted you feel in the following areas. [Interaction with host nations outside of work]	3.5	0.12

4.4. Summary of results

In summary, cultural competence and adjustment are positively correlated variables. In turn, they are strongly correlated to the independent variables of culture of origin and years of experience, however are only moderately correlated to the independent variables of rank and age. In addition, cultural competence and adjustment are greatest amongst academic expatriates of non-Arab origin, lecturers not holding a PhD, expatriates who are 55 years old or older, and with 12 years or more of experience.

5. Discussion

5.1. Main findings and interpretation

Academic expatriates in the UAE are culturally competent and well adjusted. Cultural competence and adjustment increase with years of experience and age, and expatriates from different cultural backgrounds to the host country adjust better and are more culturally competent. In addition, cultural competence and adjustment in academic expatriates are positively correlated.

This study adopts two measures that have been developed and utilized separately in past studies. This research shows a positive relationship between the measure of cultural competence and the measure of adaptation. The theories of cultural competence (Tomasello et al., 1993; Tomasello, 2016) and adjustment (Black, 1988) formed the theoretical framework to this study. The positive relationship between these theories adds to the understanding of both theories and the body of knowledge on these theories. Results encourage further studies using both the measure of cultural competence and adjustment in tandem. The positive correlation between cultural competence and adjustment also resulted when these measures were tested within the specific groups of the four independent variables, namely culture of origin, age, rank, and years of experience.

The debate on culture in literature was introduced in the literature review of this article. The debate on whether similarities or differences between expatriates’ culture of origin and host country culture, facilitate, or hinder adjustment has received a lot of attention. Proponents of the Cultural Distance Paradox (Black et al., 1991; Hemmasi & Downes, 2013; Pinder & Schroeder, 1987; Selmer, 2007; Vromand & van Engen, 2013) argue that cultural differences facilitate adjustment whilst proponents of similarities argue that cultural similarities facilitate adjustment (Babiker, Cox & Miller, 1980; Furnham and Bochner, 1986; Isakovic & Whitman, 2013; Ward & Kennedy, 1993).

This debate was tested in this study by testing how the scores on cultural competence and adjustment vary in relation to culture using statistical hypothesis testing. Findings show that there is sufficient enough evidence to support the Cultural Distance Paradox and therefore the argument that expatriates from a different culture to the host country’s culture are more adjusted and culturally competent. Therefore, academic expatriates of non-Arab background in the UAE adjust better and are more culturally competent. This is a first time ever result for a study in the UAE since the study by Isakovic and Whitman (2013) did not find supported for the Cultural Distance Paradox.

Similarly, findings in this study on the effects of rank (professional title) and years of experience on cultural competence and adjustment differ from the findings of previous studies carried out within the same population of academic expatriates in the UAE. On professional rank that is tied to the highest degree attained by the academic expatriate, Isakovic and Whitman (2013) found that there were no significant differences in the results for interaction adjustment or work adjustment by highest degree earned, however, differences were found for cultural adjustment. In the current study PhD holders (Assistant Professors) were found to be less culturally competent and adjusted than non-PhD holders (Lecturers) when scores on cultural competence and adjustment were analyzed in relation to professional rank using statistical hypothesis testing. This finding demands further investigation.

On years of experience, Isakovic and Whitman (2013) found a significant difference in means for length of experience for cultural adjustment, interaction adjustment, and work adjustment. Similarly, in the current study differences were also noted as both cultural competence and adjustment improve with years of experience, similarly to the findings by Isakovic and Whitman (2013). Therefore, one may conclude that the length of exposure to a host culture does facilitate the expatriate’s experience.

An interpretation to the above finding is the finding by Selmer and Lauring (2015) that the longer the academic expatriates stay in their host locations the better their host country language abilities are. Selmer and Lauring (2015) concluded that host country language abilities are associated with better general adjustment and interaction adjustment. However, language is only one aspect of culture and this study adds to language the wider aspect of cultural competence that improves with experience. Another interpretation of this finding is that adjustment levels increase over time and level off as cultural cognitive dissonance experiences become more infrequent with time (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005).

5.2. Limitations

The cross-sectional nature of this study on cultural learning and adjustment may be considered as a limitation in this study as it is a snap shot of a process that may be further understood taking a longitudinal approach. The latter would offer greater insight into the process of learning and adjustment of the academic expatriate. Social desirability may be another limitation as this study assesses learning and adjustment processes that may both fall under the socially desirable attributes of an academic expatriate. The confidential methodology of the study was selected to mitigate this limitation.

5.3. Recommendations

Further recommendations for research are: the investigation of the Cultural Distance Paradox in different host countries and further investig ation into the link between professional qualification, cultural competence and adjustment; the separate investigate of cultural competence and adjustment in relation to culture of origin, years of experience, rank, and age; an increase in the sample size; further investigation into the effect of education and the associated rank of academic expatriates. A practical recommendation is the inclusion of experienced academic expatriates in the orientation of new academics as experience and age both seem to be facilitating cultural competence and adjustment in this study.

6. Conclusion

In shedding light on the under-researched group of academic expatriates this study concludes that the relationship between cultural learning and adjustment amongst academic expatriates in the UAE is a positive relationships and increased cultural learning is linked to well-adjusted academic expatriates. As age and years of experience increase also do cultural competence and adjustment. In addition, cultural competence and adjustment are greater amongst expatriates from cultures that are different to the host country culture. These findings have implications for Universities that increasingly recruit academic expatriates and seek to employ expatriates with the right cultural aptitudes.

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Roberta Fenech

As an occupational psychologist, I am particularly interested in bringing together the worlds of psychology, business and education. In researching culture, work readiness, entrepreneurship, family businesses and robotics I have taken a psychological perspective. For example I researched and published articles and a book chapter on: entrepreneurial intentions and motivation; entrepreneurial attitudes, self-efficacy, and subjective norms; apprehension and attachment towards robotics; the effects of cultural similarity and diversity on academic expatriates; work readiness amongst business students; the conscious and unconscious processes in strategic succession in family businesses. In researching culture I am interested in the cultural competence and the adjustment of academic expatriates which is part of a larger study on the effects of cultural similarity and differences on the adjustment of academic expatriates. I am particularly interested in academic expatriates as I myself am an academic expatriate living and working in the United Arab Emirates for over 5 years.