Understanding handwriting difficulties: A comparison of children with and without motor impairment

Figures & data

Table 1. Mean age and scores for dysgraphia, DCD, and TD groups on selection measures.

Selection measures	D (n = 14)	DCD (n = 14)	TD (n = 14)	p
Age in years	10.55 (1.77)	10.61 (1.82)	10.47 (2.00)	.981
MABC–2 Test percentiles
Total test score	32.00 (21.15)	6.41 (8.12)	48.28 (26.32)	<.001*	DCD < D < TD
Manual Dexterity component	36.21 (24.60)	7.42 (9.14)	55.85 (30.92)	<.001*	DCD < D < TD
BPVS–2 standard score	105.43 (11.3)	111.21 (17.44)	106.77 (12.79)	.532
BAS–II spelling standard score	104.00 (12.78)	100.36 (10.58)	112.21 (10.11)	.023*	DCD = D; D = TD; DCD < TD
BAS–II reading standard score	113.80 (9.48)	113.71 (11.04)	121.86 (11.60)	.101

Note: Standard deviations in parentheses. MABC–2 = Movement Assessment Battery for Children test component; BPVS–2 = British Picture Vocabulary Scale; BAS–II = British Ability Scale; D = dysgraphia; DCD = developmental coordination disorder; TD = typically developing group.

*p ≤ .050.

Table 2. A comparison of the handwriting performance measures for the dysgraphia, DCD, and TD groups.

Measures	Dysgraphia (n = 14) M (SD)	DCD (n = 14) M (SD)	TD (n = 14) M (SD)
Handwriting product
Alphabet (lpm)	41.07 (23.28)	42.93 (16.17)	52.57 (15.66)
Free writing (wpm)*	12.43 (3.83)	12.34 (4.22)	15.38 (4.48)	TD > (D = DCD)
HLS (total score)*	16.57 (3.61)	17.64 (4.10)	9.57 (2.06)	TD < (D = DCD)
% Illegible words*	4.98 (4.53)	6.55 (8.22)	0.001 (0.005)	TD < (D = DCD)
Handwriting process
Execution speed (cm/s)
Alphabet	2.63 (1.02)	2.46 (0.82)	2.74 (0.73)
Free writing	2.85 (0.61)	2.67 (0.63)	2.64 (0.61)
Percentage of pausing
Alphabet	60.74 (9.08)	56.94 (9.44)	58.28 (9.08)
Free writing*	61.20 (7.15)	62.19 (8.66)	53.52 (8.70)	TD < (D = DCD)
Percentage of errors in letter production
Alphabet*	13.79 (8.94)	24.38 (18.30)	9.63 (5.37)	TD < (D = DCD)

Note: Means (standard deviations in parentheses) or median. D = dysgraphia; DCD = developmental coordination disorder; TD = typically developing group; wpm = words per minute; lpm = letters per minute.

*p ≤ .050.

Table 3. Performance profiles of children with dysgraphia across four measures.

Participant	Errors in letter formation^a (%) TD M (SD) = 9.63 (5.37)	Speed (wpm) TD M (SD) = 15.38 (4.48)	Legibility^a (HLS) TD M (SD) = 9.07 (2.06)	Pausing^a (%) TD M (SD) = 53.52 (8.70)
37	−1	−1	−2	0
08	+2	−1	+4	+2
10	+1	+1	+3	0
124	+3	−2	+3	+1
133	+1	0	+2	+1
144	−2	0	+2	0
45	+1	0	+2	+1
46	+1	−1	+2	+1
147	+1	+1	+1	−1
48	−1	−2	+1	0
49	+1	−2	+2	+2
51	0	0	+1	+1
156	−1	0	0	0
118	+3	−1	0	−1

Note: HLS = Handwriting Legibility Scale; TD = typically developing group; wpm = words per minute. 0 = within 1 SD of the TD mean.

^aPositive SD indicates performance below that of TD group.

Table 4. Performance profiles of children in the DCD group across four measures.

Participant	Errors in letter formation^a (%) TD M (SD) = 9.63 (5.37)	Speed (wpm) TD M (SD) = 15.38 (4.48)	Legibility^a (HLS) TD M (SD) = 9.07 (2.06)	Pausing^a (%) TD M (SD) = 53.52 (8.70)
02	+6	−1	+3	+2
05	+8	+1	+3	−1
15	+7	−1	+7	+1
18	0	0	+1	+1
19	+1	0	+1	+1
20	+1	0	+2	0
28	+1	−1	+1	+1
24	+1	0	+1	+1
30	−1	+2	0	−1
39	+9	−2	+2	+1
33	0	0	+2	+2
41	0	−1	+2	0
42	−1	0	−1	−1
53	+3	0	+1	+1

Note: DCD = developmental coordination disorder; HLS = Handwriting Legibility Scale; TD = typically developing group; wpm = words per minute. 0 = within 1 SD of the TD mean.

^aPositive SD indicates performance below that of TD group.

*p ≤ .050.

Table 5. Percentage of children in the dysgraphia and DCD groups with scores below 1 standard deviation of TD group mean.

Measure	TD M (SD)	Dysgraphia (%)	DCD (%)
Speed (wpm)	15.38 (4.48)	50	36
Legibility (HLS)	9.07 (2.06)	79	86
% Pausing	53.52 (8.70)	50	64
% Errors in letter formation	9.63 (5.37)	64	64

Note: Standard deviations in parentheses. DCD = developmental coordination disorder; HLS = Handwriting Legibility Scale; TD = typically developing group; wpm = words per minute.

Table 6. Correlations between reading, spelling, vocabulary, and manual dexterity with the handwriting measures.

Measure	Reading		Spelling		Vocabulary		Manual dexterity
	r	p	r	p	r	p	r	p
Quality of letter formation (% incorrect letter forms)	−.309	.067	−.383	.021*	−.033	.846	−.351	.036*
Free writing (wpm)	.079	.648	.322	.056	−.409	.013*	.262	.123
HLS total score (1–25)^a	−.276	.103	−.397	.017*	.261	.125	−.658	<.001*
Execution speed (cms^–1)	.123	.477	.155	.367	−.093	.590	−.112	.515
% Pausing on free writing	−.099	.565	−.361	.031*	.367	.028*	−.399	.016*

Note: N = 42. HLS = Handwriting Legibility Scale; wpm = words per minute.

^aHigher scores on HLS reflect poorer legibility.

*p ≤ .050.