What constitutes the surface approach to learning in the light of new empirical evidence?

Figures & data

Table 1. Surface approach scale items used in the study.

Surface approach scale item	Element of the surface approach
I often have trouble making sense of the things I have to learn.	Memorising without understanding
I am unable to understand the topics I need to learn because they are so complicated.	Fragmented knowledge
Much of what I’ve learned seems to be no more than unrelated bits and pieces.	Fragmented knowledge
I often have to repeat things in order to learn them.	Memorisation without understanding

Table 2. Means and standard deviations of the surface approach in different disciplines (N = 1008).

Discipline	Mean (StD) of the surface approach (max score 5)	Number of students who completed the questionnaire
Biosciences	2.66 (.65)	299
Educational sciences	2.56 (.62)	142
Humanities	2.46 (.67)	127
Mathematics	2.72 (.71)	224
Theology	2.48 (.58)	163
Veterinary medicine	2.82 (.60)	53

Table 3. Four pivotal elements of the surface approach, and criteria used for each element.

The elements of the surface approach	Criteria
1) Aim to learn facts to pass a course	– aim to learn more – aim to complete an assignment or degree – aim to pass a course
2) Memorisation	– repetition of knowledge – learning by heart – concentration on remembering facts
3) Unreflective studying	– lack of clear study plans – no assessment of one’s own learning – no ownership of one’s own study process – following teachers’ instructions without contemplating them – lack of critical thinking
4) Fragmented knowledge	– experiences of fragmented knowledge structures or knowledge base – experiences of knowledge gaps – forgetting after exams – difficulties in linking new knowledge with previous knowledge – difficulties in creating coherent general pictures

Table 4. Summary of the five profiles in the light of the four pivotal elements of the surface approach (N = 61).

Pivotal elements	Profiles
	Full surface approach (n = 10)	Surface approach with the aim to understand (n = 15)	Surface approach with deep processes (n = 5)	Mixed approach without fragmented knowledge (n = 22)	Deep approach with memorisation (n = 9)
Aim to learn facts	+	+ and an aim to understand	+ and an aim to understand	+ and an aim to understand	–
Memorisation	+	+	+ and some deep processes	+ and some deep processes	+ and deep processes
Unreflective studying	+	+	+	+	– (+)
Fragmented knowledge	+	+	+	–	–

Note: ‘+’ refers to a detected surface element and ‘–‘ to a missing element.

Table 5. Frequencies and percentages of elements related to the surface approach from the most common to the least (N = 61).

Elements related to the surface approach	F (%)
Lack of organised studying	29 (48)
Low motivation to study	19 (31)
Weak self-efficacy beliefs	18 (30)
Lack of self-regulation	15 (25)
Negative study experiences	15 (25)
Low interest in studying	12 (20)
Experience of heavy workload	4 (7)

Figure 1. Variation in factors explaining the surface approach in the five profiles (N = 61).