Cognitive Constraints on the Simple View of Reading: A Longitudinal Study in Children With Intellectual Disabilities

Figures & data

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Three Measurement Occasions

			Wave 1		Wave 2		Wave 3
	Max. Score	Exp. Score	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Reading comprehension
Anaphora	12	12	5.24	3.73	6.79	3.80	7.43	4.02
Inferences	12	12	5.07	3.08	6.13	3.14	6.63	3.18
Decoding
Word decoding (2 min)	—	292	47.55	51.16	68.30	60.15	81.74	61.59
Pseudoword decoding (4 min)	—	372	57.86	37.01	77.83	82.24	103.34	91.75
Listening comprehension	15	13	5.12	3.79	6.32	4.12	7.30	4.47
Foundational literacy skills
Rhyme	15	15	11.01	3.25
Blending	15	15	12.63	2.74
Deletion	15	15	6.64	3.26
Sound-to-letter	34	34	30.99	5.55
RAN	120	61	45.36	14.13
Vocabulary	—	125	88.08	15.74
Grammar	42	42	29.86	6.49
Phonological short-term memory	40	28	12.58	9.33
Verbal working memory	30	13	7.12	2.38
Nonverbal reasoning	36	31	19.84	6.10
Temporal processing	—	115	26.12	36.39

Note. Max. score = Maximum score on test, if applicable. Exp. score = expected score on test, based on mean age of participants.

Table 2. Correlations Between Predictor Variables at Wave 1 and Outcome Variables at Waves 2 and 3

		Wave	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13
1.	Reading comprehension	3	—
2.	Reading comprehension	2	.78**	—
3.	Decoding	2	.65**	.69**	—
4.	Listening comprehension	2	.51**	.35*	.18	—
5.	Decoding	1	.63**	.65**	.94**	.27	—
6.	Listening comprehension	1	.48**	.34*	.17	.82**	.27	—
7.	Foundational literacy skills	1	.77**	.70**	.55**	.48**	.54**	.37*	—
8.	RAN	1	.55**	.50**	.54**	.36*	.56**	.24	.52**	—
9.	Vocabulary	1	.58**	.54**	.34*	.66**	.42**	.63**	.60**	.37*	—
10.	Grammar	1	.71**	.62**	.42**	.61**	.44**	.55**	.67**	.43**	.76**	—
11.	Phonological short-term memory	1	.54**	.50**	.41**	.29	.41**	.37*	.52**	.20	.49**	.41**	—
12.	Immediate verbal memory	1	.66**	.62**	.53**	.39**	.50**	.39**	.69**	.49**	.56**	.60**	.49**	—
13.	Nonverbal reasoning	1	.60**	.44**	.27	.34*	.31*	.33*	.54**	.38*	.48**	.60**	.35*	.54**	—
14.	Temporal processing	1	.35*	.41**	.32*	.08	.33*	.20	.47**	.22	.31*	.31*	.54**	.46**	.43**

Note. n = 76. RAN = rapid automatized naming.

*p < .01. **p < .001.

Figure 1. Standardized parameter estimates for the final structural equation model predicting Wave 3 reading comprehension from Wave 2 decoding, listening comprehension, and reading comprehension and from Wave 1 linguistic and nonlinguistic precursors. Note. For correlations between variables within Wave 1 and Wave 2, see Table 2.