A review on health benefits, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean)

Figures & data

Figure 1. Seven different color types of BGN seeds: black, red, cream/black eye, cream/brown eye, cream with no eye, purple, and brown color (A to G), respectively.^[20].

Figure 2. Various products produced from BGN grains: BGN pie, BGN crackers, BGN chili-bite, BGN brownie, BGN tofu, BGN cake, BGN biscuits, BGN milk, BGN baking flour, BGN chips, BGN tofu, and BGN pro beverages (A to K), respectively. https://www.innovationbridge.info/ibportal/sites/default/files/bambara-tia-brochure-2019.pdf (innovationbridge.info).

Table 1. Various foods products of Bambara groundnut produced in selected African countries.

Country	Product name and processing of the product	References
South Africa	“Tshipupu” in Tshivenda- (Soup or porridge is made by boiling and stirring BGN)	[24]
Nigeria	“Okpa”- BGN is steamed into pudding	[25]
Kenya	“Njugumawe”- BGN grains are soaked, then cooked with maize, crushed and fried into a stew maize	[24]
Zimbabwe	“Matakura”- BGN grains are boiled to prepare Matakura	[26]
Zambia	“Ntoyo or Katoy”- BGN is ground into flour to bake bread	[24,27]
Ghana	“Koose”- A paste of fried BGN grains “Tubani”- BGN powder is mixed with water to make a stiff paste	[8,28]
Botswana	“Ditloo”- BGN is boiled and salted, and then eaten as a snack “Dikgobe”- A porridge prepared by boiled BGN grains mixed with dry maize	[8,28]
Cameroon	“Akara”- It is made by rolling BGN grain paste into balls and fried immediately in oil BGN grains are milled into powder, other times following roasting to prepare a porridge BGN flour is also mixed with maize flour to enrich traditional meals.	[29,30]
Sudan	Dried grains powder is utilized to prepare a stiff porridge	[8]
Mali	BGN grain powder is incorporated with sorghum or millet powder to prepare croquettes and grilled bread	[8]
Tanzania	Ground roasted BGN grains are roasted to prepare a soup or stiff porridge	[8]

BGN = Bambara groundnut

Table 2. Nutritional profile of various types of Bambara groundnut grains, flour and grain coat.

Cultivars seeds	Crude protein (%)	Fat (%)	Moisture (%)	Carbohydrates (%)	Ash (%)	References
Red	19.5–20.57	5.2–6.5	8.0–8.7	54.4–63.9	2.4–3.4	[16,18]
Black	21.7–26.3	5.2–8.5	8.9–9.0	52.8–57.4	2.2–3.5	[16,18]
Cream	19.5–23.51	6.0–7.8	8.9–9.7	56.0–58.6	2.5–2.9	[18,42,43]
Brown	19.0–24.3	5.3–8.0	8.7–10.3	54.4–59.4	2.4–3.0	[9,16,44]
Flour
Red	17.1–20.9	3.0–7.0	7.7–9.3	48.0–57.43	2.0–3.90	[9,18,45]
Black	22.6–25.3	4.0–5.9	9.0–11.3	32.0–61.7	2.0–3.8	[9,18,42]
Cream	22.3	3.0	9.0	49.6	1.5	[18]
Brown	19.4–20.9	3.5–8.5	6.41–10.0	48.0–56.87	2.0–4.12	[18,45]
Grain coat
Red	5.7	0.5	3.0	8.4	1.0	[18]
Black	6.1	2.0	2.0	6.0	1.5	[18]
Cream	6.8	1.0	1.0	9.2	1.0	[18]
Brown	6.3	2.0	3.0	9.1	1.0	[18]

Table 3. Mineral composition of Bambara groundnut grains.

Mineral content (mg/100 g)	Bambara groundnut	References
Calcium	0.3–76.01	[46,55,56]
Potassium	31.50–2200.00	[46,57]
Magnesium	1.30–555.10	[46]
Sodium	0.10–25.20	[46,57]
Phosphorus	17.40–563.00	[46,57]
Iron	0.10–180.2	[55,57]
Sulfur	0.34	[56]
Zinc	2.14–139.00	[46,55]
Copper	0.26–30.00	[55,57]

Table 4. Amino acids content of Bambara groundnut grains.

Amino acids (g/100 g)	Bambara groundnut	References
Essential amino acids
Valine	0.70–0.98	[64,65]
Lysine	1.15–5.91	[64,65]
Histidine	0.50–2.44	[64,65]
Phenylalanine	0.80–4.13	[64,65]
Threonine	0.53–3.04	[64,65]
Methionine	0.24–1.22	[64,65]
Leucine	1.16–6.92	[64,65]
Non-essential amino acids
Proline	0.61–2.86	[64,65]
Alanine	0.65–4.04	[64,65]
Serine	0.79–3.33	[64,65]
Glycine	0.58–2.38	[64,65]
Arginine	1.18–5.68	[64,65]
Glutamic acid	2.56–10.01	[64,65]
Aspartic acid	1.63–10.03	[64,65]
Tyrosine	0.56–3.21	[64,65]

Table 5. Antimicrobial activities of Bambara groundnut grains and against crucial foodborne pathogens.

Legume	Extracts	Microorganisms	Effect	References
Bambara groundnut	BGN seed	Escherichia coli Candida albicans Staphylococcus aureus	Growth inhibition	[16]
Bambara groundnut	BGN seed coat, 99.9% ethanol extracts	Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Bacillus cereus	Growth inhibition	[72]
Bambara groundnut	BGN red and brown hulls, 70% methanol and 70% ethanol extracts	Staphylococcus aureus Candida albicans Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Growth inhibition	[24]

Table 6. Phytochemicals of Bambara groundnut grains and their health benefits.

Phytochemicals	Quantity(mg/g)	Health benefit	References
Flavonoids
Kaempferol	0.05–2.18	Boost the body’s antioxidant defense over free radicals, which lowers the chances of developing chronic diseases, particularly cancer and stroke	[12,91–94]
Anthocyanin	0.038	Regulate signaling pathways, aid in improving vision, controls weight, lowers the chances of developing cardiovascular diseases, malignancy and neurodegenerative disorders	[95,96]
Medioresinol	0.0008	Prevents CVDs and metabolic syndrome by lowering glucose and cholesterol levels	[64,97]
Myricetin	0.062–1.80	Protect liver injuries, lowers hepatic triglycerides, inhibits hyperglycemia, reduce oxidative reduce oxidative stress	[12,92,98,99]
Catechin	0.01–2.34	Prevents cancer, obesity, diabetes, liver injuries, CVDs, and lowers cholesterol level	[92,100,101]
Quercetin	0.007–6.39	Lowers high glucose level, prevent kidney failure, heal wounds, prevents Alzheimer disease, and eases arthritis-related pain and inflammation	[12,92,102–104]
Epicatechin	1.15	Decreases chances of CVDs and diabetes	[92,105]
Phytic acids
Ellagic acid	0.0005–1.09	Heal wounds, reduce exhaustion and insomnia. Prevents liver damage, heart disease, skin damage, atherosclerosis, fibrosis, and nociceptive.	[12,92]
Chlorogenic acid	0.03–2.37	Prevents diabetes, cancer, stroke, Alzheimer disease, blood pressure, and obesity	[12,92,106,107]
Caffeic acid	3.65	Prevents cancer, neurological disorders, diabetes, inflammation, premature aging and improves collagen synthesis.	[12,92,108,109]
Gallic acid	0.05–1.03	Ability to treat cancer, neoplastic, diabetes, Alzheimer disease, hepatitis C virus, Parkinson’s disease, and CVDs.	[12,92,110,111]
Quinic acid	0.00309	Inhibit Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Hepatitis B virus, and Herpes Simplex virus loads. Improves immunological functioning, and improve in DNA repair.	[64,112,113]

CVDs = Cardiovascular diseases

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