Phytochemical analysis and biological activities of Artemisia vulgaris grown in different altitudes of Nepal

Figures & data

Figure 1. Chemical structures of some antioxidants (rebamipide, trolox, and quercetin).

Figure 2. Mechanism of DPPH scavenging by an antioxidant (AH).

Figure 3. Mechanism of α-amylase enzyme inhibition activity.

Figure 4. Photographs of the plant material, cold percolation, and Clevenger’s apparatus used in the extraction of essential oils.

Table 1. Yield percentage of extracts and essential oils for root and leaf of A. vulgaris growing in different altitudes.

Location/altitudes/geographic coordinate	Plants	Extract % in 100 g sample (root)	Essential oils % in 500 g sample (leaf)
Chitwan (208 m), and 27.5291° N, 84.3542 °E	A. vulgaris	10.01	0.3
Gorkha (862 m), 28.2964° N, 84.8568° E	A. vulgaris	9.47	0.3
Kathmandu (1324 m), 27.7293° N, 85.3343° E	A. vulgaris	12.11	0.2

Figure 5. Calibration curve of standard gallic acid (a) and quercetin (b).

Table 2. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents in the leaf and root extracts of A. vulgaris growing in different altitudes.

Name of plant	Location/altitudes	Extract	TPC (mg.GAE/g)	TFC (mg.QE/g)
Artemisia vulgaris	Chitwan (208 m)	Leaf	26.04 ± 1.66	33.41 ± 0.27
		Root	88.52 ± 2.15	55.33 ± 1.52
A. vulgaris	Gorkha (862 m)	Leaf	64.74 ± 1.20	31.54 ± 0.80
		Root	93.35 ± 2.70	46.50 ± 0.63
A. vulgaris	Kathmandu (1324 m)	Leaf	66.38 ± 3.25	71.15 ± 2.07
		Root	96.30 ± 0.52	63.80 ± 1.60

Figure 6. The IC₅₀ values for the DPPH free radical scavenging shown by the leaf and root extracts of A. vulgaris grown in different altitudes as compared to the positive control.

Table 3. Zone of inhibition (ZOI) shown by the plant extracts and essential oils growing at different altitudes against six strains of bacteria in agar diffusion test.

	Chitwan (208 m)			Gorkha (862 m)			Kathmandu (1324 m)
	LE	RE	EO	LE	RE	EO	LE	RE	EO
Staphylococus aureus	–	–	–	–	–	11 mm	–	–	11 mm
Escherichia coli	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	9 mm
Klebsiella pneumonia	–	–	12 mm	–	–	12 mm	–	–	12 mm
Salmonella typhi	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Shigella sonnei	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	10 mm
Acinetobacter baumannii	–	–	11 mm	–	–	15 mm	–	–	15 mm

LE = leaf extract, RE = root extract, EO = essential oils.

Table 4. α-Amylase inhibition shown by A. vugaris root and leaf extracts.

Location/altitudes	A. vulgaris extracts	% Inhibition
Chitwan (208 m)	Leaf	18.87
	Root	38.25
Gorkha (862 m)	Leaf	8.69
	Root	39.43
Kathmandu (1324 m)	Leaf	18.59
	Root	22.94

Figure 7. Chromatograms of components of essential oils of A. vulgaris growing in different altitudes such as Chitwan (208 m), Gorkha (862 m), and Kathmandu (1324 m).

Table 5. Chemical composition of essential oils of A. vulgaris leaf growing in Chitwan (208 m) and Gorkha (862 m).

Compounds of A. vulgaris leaves grown in Kathmandu (1324 m)
Retention time (m)	Peak area %	Compounds
2.454	10.93	Cyclohexane
11.710	1.54	Camphene
14.235	0.41	(+)-4-Carene
14.666	2.80	D-limonene
14.763	10.79	Eucalyptol
17.223	2.18	Thujone
19.090	1.65	Borneol
26.081	0.37	Caryophyllene
30.083	0.58	Caryophyllene oxide
43.558	0.92	Vitamin E

Table 6. Chemical composition of essential oils of A. vulgaris leaf growing in Kathmandu (1324 m).

Compounds in A. vulgaris leaf Chitwan (208 m)			Compounds in A. vulgaris leaf Gorkha (862 m)
Retention time (m)	Peak area %	Compounds	Retention time (m)	Peak area %	Compounds
2.454	6.01	Cyclohexane	2.454	9.97	Cyclohexane
11.203	1.87	Alpha-Pinene	3.489	0.10	Methyl- cyclohexane
11.732	3.37	Camphene	11.721	1.01	Camphene
12.779	11.63	Beta-Phellandrene	12.735	5.19	Beta-Phellandrene
14.785	9.53	Eucalyptol	14.807	15.88	Eucalyptol
19.111	1.69	Borneol	18.809	0.16	Isoborneol
24.506	o.28	Eugenol	19.101	0.53	Borneol
26.092	0.45	Caryophyllene	24.506	0.13	Eugenol
57.325	0.96	Vitamin E	26.092	0.32	Caryophyllene
57.325	0.96	Di-alpha-tocopherol	30.094	0.27	Caryophyllene oxide