The impact of second- and third-language learning on language aptitude and working memory

Figures & data

Table 1. Participant groups and the type and amount of instruction.

Participants	First year			Second year
Groups	L2 learner	L2 + 3 learner		L2+ learner	L2 + 3 learner
		E/J	E/R		E/J	E/R
Sample Population	12	21	16	9	12	9
Instruction (h/week)	E: 16	E:16	E:16	E:12	E:12	E:12
		J:8	R:8	FL:4	J:10	R:10

Note: *E/J: English/Japanese learners; E/R: English/Russian learners; E: English; J: Japanese; R: Russian; FL: foreign languages, including Japanese, Russian, German and French.

Figure 1. The automatic version of operation span task.

Table 2. Initial status and development of writing proficiency.

Writing proficiency	Independent Sample T-Test for pre-scores		Paired Sample T-Test for pre-scores and post scores
	t	r^2	t	r^2
First year	t (47)
L2	0.61	/	6.52***	0.79
L2 + 3			9.79***	0.72
Second year	t (28)
L2+	0.39	/	2.13	/
L2 + 3			2.78*	0.28

Note:*The difference is significant at the 0.05 level; ***the difference is significant at the 0.001 level.

Table 3. Initial status and development of speaking proficiency.

Speaking proficiency	Independent Sample T-Test for pre-scores		Paired Sample T-Test for pre-scores and post scores
	t	r^2	t	r^2
First year	t (47)
L2	0.37	/	3.43**	0.52
L2 + 3			12.65***	0.82
Second year	t (28)
L2+	0.36	/	1.64	/
L2 + 3			4.78***	0.53

Note: **The difference is significant at the 0.01 level; ***the difference is significant at the 0.001 level.

Table 4. Results for main effect of testing time for the first-year students.

		Descriptive statistics				Repeated measures ANOVA
		M(SE)				F(1,48)		η^2
		Pre		Post
LLAMA-B		49.08(2.56)		53.47(2.98)		2.26		/
LLAMA-D		29.29(2.14)		37.55(2.26)		12.01**		0.20
LLAMA-E		62.45(3.72)		72.04(3.67)		5.90*		0.12
LLAMA-F		50.10(2.72)		54.69(3.06)		1.20		/
OSP		45.88(1.90)		57.65(1.63)		35.27**		0.42

Note:*The effect is significant at the 0.05 level; **the effect is significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 5. Results for main effect of testing time for the second-year students.

		Descriptive statistics				Repeated measures ANOVA
		M(SE)				F(1,29)		η^2
		Pre		Post
LLAMA-B		49.33(4.19)		59.50(4.26)		7.27*		0.20
LLAMA-D		39.50(2.09)		41.83(3.58)		0.59		/
LLAMA-E		76.50(3.27)		79.83(3.26)		0.71		/
LLAMA-F		49.33(4.29)		63.83(4.58)		8.35**		0.22
OSP		50.40(2.02)		54.97(2.43)		6.39*		0.18

Note: *The effect is significant at the 0.05 level; **the effect is significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 6. ANCOVA results and descriptive statistics for language learning intensity effect on WM among the first-year students.

	ANCOVA				Descriptive statistics
	F(2,45)	η^2		Group	n	Observed Mean (SD)	Adjusted Mean(SE)
OSP task	7.39 *	0.14		L2	12	49.42(12.35)	50.65(2.98)
				L2 + 3	37	60.32(9.85)	59.92(1.66)

Note: *The effect is significant at the 0.05 level.