The impact of livelihood diversification as a climate change adaptation strategy on poverty level of pastoral households in southeastern and southern Ethiopia

Figures & data

Figure 1. Location of the study areas.

Table 1. Socio-demographic profile of households

	Mean		Mean diff.& its Std. Dev		t-value
Variables	Male (340)	Female (56)	Mean diff.	Std. Dev.
Age HH head	40.15	46.23	−6.08	2.10	−2.89^a
Education of HH head	3.58	1.23	2.34	0.65	3.59^a
Household size	6.53	6.54	−0.009	0.35	−0.03
Dependency ratio	1.68	1.87	−0.19	0.15	−1.32
Stock size	10.82	7.23	3.59	1.75	2.05^b
Extension contacts	15.84	12.61	3.24	1.04	3.12^a
Productive asset	1583.23	1089.29	493.95	325.56	1.52

Source: Authors’ computation (2022).

^aand^b denote the significance level at 1 and 5 % significance levels.

Table 2. The result of Sen’s slope for minimum maximum and, average temperature and precipitation

Districts	Min tem. (°C)	Sen’s Slope (°C/year)	Max tem. (°C)	Sen’s Slope (°C/year)	Av. tem. (°C)	Sen’s Slope (°C/year)	Av. annual RF (mm)	Sen’s Slope (°C/year)
Arero	18.79	0.029^a	23.89	0.027^b	21.66	0.028^a	60.47	0.666^a
Rayitu	19.89	0.024^a	26.08	0.024^a	24.15	023^a	59.06	0.331^b

^aand ^b denote significance at 1% and 5% significance levels, respectively.

Table 3. Livelihood diversification of household

Variable	Freq.	Percent	Com.
No diversification	76	19.19	19.19
Crop production	194	48.99	68.18
Non- farm activities	39	9.85	78.03
Crop production & non- farm activities	87	21.97	100
Total	396	100

Table 4. Mean comparison of selected continuous variables by poverty status

	Mean		Mean diff.& its Std. Dev.		.t-value
Variables	Poor (133)	Non-poor (263)	Mean diff.	Std. Dev.
age	46.737	38.042	8.695	1.513	5.747^a
hhsize	7.737	5.939	1.798	0.241	7.457^a
head_educ	3.195	3.243	−0.048	0.489	−0.098
tlu	7.223	11.879	−4.656	1.280	−3.638^a
ex_contact	14.451	15.859	−1.408	0.771	−1.825^c
dmkt	1.999	1.583	0.416	0.136	3.053^a
dveter	2.147	1.740	0.406	0.161	2.523^b
kcalorie_ae	1639.053	3147.545	−1508.492	125.610	−12.009^a
fexpenditure	6485.679	16984.168	−10498.489	697.336	−15.055^a
texpenditure	7876.576	19545.617	−11669.041	752.554	−15.506^a
nfincome	481.94	2237.11	−1755.17	542.55	−3.24^a

^{a, b}and ^c denote the significance level at 1 and 10 % significance levels

Table 5. The result of Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) decomposable index

Poverty index	Total expenditure	Food expenditure
Poverty head count index	0.346	0.374
Poverty gap index	0.093	0.104
Poverty severity index	0.036	0.043

Table 7. ATT and ATU of livelihood diversification: MESR Estimates

		Mean outcome		Treatment Effects
Outcome variable	Diversification	Adopted	Not Adopted	ATT/ATU	Impact (%)
		Actual (X)	Counterfactual (Y)	Z$\mathbf{=}\left(\mathbf{X}\mathbf{-}\mathbf{Z}\right)$	$\left(\frac{\mathbf{Z}}{\mathbf{Y}}\right)\mathbf{\ast }\mathbf{100}$
Annual consumption per capita	Crop production	13738.65	12529.08	1209.57^b (540.98)	9.65
		13464.4	13843.49	−379.08 (784.55)	2.74
	Non-farm activities	18780.11	13734.6	5045.51^a(1398.36)	36.74
		17532.99	13843.49	3689.5^a (1101.67)	26.65
	Crop & Non-farm	19677.47	14551.54	5125.93^a (1181.38)	35.23
		16162.97	13843.49	2319.48^b(903.08)	16.76
HT Effects		$\mathrm{B}{\mathrm{H}}_1$	$\mathrm{B}{\mathrm{H}}_0$	$\mathrm{T}\mathrm{H}$
Annual consumption per capita	Crop production	274.24 (603.31)	−1314.416^c (771.1)	1588.66^a (506.)
	Non-farm activities	1247.12 (1488.93)	−108.89 (1031.2)	1356 (1302.6)
	Crop & Non-farm	3514.5^a (1145.99)	708.05 (992.32)	2806.46^a (983.95)

^aand ^bdenote the significance level at 1 and 5 % significance levels, and the values in parentheses are standard errors.

Table 6. Tobit model regression estimates and marginal effects of poverty determinants

Variables	Coef.	St.Err.	$\frac{\mathrm{\partial }\mathbf{E}\mathbf{P}\mathbf{\ast }/\mathbf{x}}{\mathrm{\partial }\mathbf{x}}$	$\frac{\mathrm{\partial }\mathbf{P}>\mathbf{0}/\mathbf{x}}{\mathrm{\partial }\mathbf{x}}$	$\frac{\mathrm{\partial }E\left(P/x\right)}{\mathrm{\partial }x}$
Arero (district)	0.001	0.022	0.005	0.004	0.017
Sex (male0	0.007	0.022	0.001	0.001	0.003
age	0.001^b	0.001	0.002	0.001	0.006
hhsize	0.02^a	0.003	0.022	0.018	0.08
head_educ	0.00002	0.002	−0.0002	−0.0002	−0.001
tlu	−0.002^a	0.001	−0.003	−0.003	−0.011
ex_contact	−0.003^b	0.001	−0.002	−0.002	−0.008
credit	−0.0002	0.021	0.006	0.005	0.023
dmkt	0.014^b	0.006	0.013	0.01	0.046
sfnet	0.019	0.016	0.008	0.006	0.028
totalasset	−5*10^−7	3*10^−7	−1*10–6	−1*10–6	−5*10^−6
lsshock	−0.027	0.022	−0.024	−0.02	−0.086
Constant	−0.056	0.039
var(e)	0.021	0.001
Number of obs. = 396 LR chi2(12) = 113.65 Prob > chi2 = 0.000 Pseudo R2 = −0.4539
Log likelihood = 182.01901