Brain’s functional network clustering coefficient changes in response to instruction (RTI) in students with and without reading disabilities: Multi-leveled reading brain’s RTI

Figures & data

Figure 1. A correlation matrix map of 68 × 68 dimension made from the 68 cortical brain regions during the multiple sentence reading task of a control participant.

Figure 2. A representative functional brain network from the same participant shown in Figure 1 during the multi-sentence reading comprehension task.

Notes: The analysis used a threshold at 10% sparsity. Colors correspond to r-values. This figure was generated using BrainNet viewer (https://www.nitrc.org/projects/bnv).

Table 1. Significant behavioral effects in word reading achievement from before to after computerized lessons

Test	Time 1		Time 2		(df)	F	p	η^2
	M	(SD)	M	(SD)
TOC sight spelling
Time	8.75	(.48)	9.44	(.50)	(1, 28)	4.51	<.05*	.14
Group					(3, 28)	8.85	<.000***	.49
Control	12.20	(1.10)	12.40	(2.28)
Dysgraphia	10.00	(.3.25)	11.25	(2.31)
Dyslexia	7.46	(2.15)	7.92	(2.72)
OWL LD	5.33	(2.50)	6.17	(2.40)
Time × Diagnostic group					(3, 28)	.51	.66	.05
TOWRE sight
Time	93.73	(16.16)	96.61	(17.68)	(1,36)	5.42	<.05*	.13
Group					(3, 36)	6.36	.001***	.35
Control	100.86	(11.95)	106.86	(12.79)
Dysgraphia	106.78	(18.16)	107.67	(22.03)
Dyslexia	70.41	(12.99)	93.76	(13.42)
OWL LD	78.29	(9.09)	80.70	(11.88)
Time × Diagnostic group					(3, 36)	.62	.61	.05
TOWRE phonemic
Time	91.23	(2.43)	94.87	(2.53)	(1, 36)	10.58	<.01**	.23
Group					(3, 36)	7.64	<.001***	.39
Control	101.57	(12.33)	106.14	(14.04)
Dysgraphia	104.00	(19.67)	106.33	(20.14)
Dyslexia	86.06	(14.22)	87.29	(12.91)
OWL LD	73.29	(6.45)	79.71	(11.10)
Time × Diagnostic group					(3, 36)	1.14	.33	.09

Notes: TOC sight spelling (Mather et al., 2008) assesses word-specific spelling. TOWRE (Torgesen et al., 1999) assesses accuracy and rate of orally reading real words (TOWRE sight) and nonwords (TOWRE phonemic). Only results for each group at each time rather than for each group across the two times are reported to interpret both group and time × group effects.

* p < 0.05.

** p < 0.01.

*** p < 0.001

Table 2. Graph analysis clusters for fMRI connectivity (gray matter) on reading tasks

fMRI task and regions	Time 1 M (SD)	Time 2 M (SD	F(df)	p	η^2
Word-specific reading/spelling
Right medial cingulate gyrus
Time	.076 (.013)	.061 (.011)	(1, 39) .89	.35	.02
Group			(3, 39) 1.06	.38	.08
Control	.148 (.17)	.050 (.026)
Dysgraphia	.068 (.060)	.061 (.088)
Dyslexia	.045 (.042)	.082 (.069)
OWL LD	.044 (.051)	.050 (.045)
Time × Diagnostic group			(3,39)3.42	<.05*	.21
Single Sentence Reading with and without homonym foils
Left superior frontal gyrus
Time	.219 (.032)	.162 (.028)	(1,39)1.97	.17	.05
Group			(3,39)1.08	.37	.08
Control	.383(.357)	.139 (.145)
Dysgraphia	.207(.142)	.093 (.101)
Dyslexia	.146 (.145)	.196 (.172)
OWL LD	.140 (.111)	.219 (.243)
Time × Diagnostic group			(3, 39)3.40	<.05*	.21
left middle frontal gyrus
Time	.108 (.025)	.119 (.039)	(1,31).05	.82	.00
Group			(3, 39)5.27	<.01**	.29
Control	.053 (.056)	.053 (.084)
Dysgraphia	.083 (.047)	.085 (.073)
Dyslexia	.211 (.033)	.240 (.052)
OWL LD	.083 (.060)	.098 (.094)
Time × Diagnostic group			(3, 39) .03	.99	.00
Left inferior frontal gyrus
Time	.302 (.060)	.143 (.044)	(1, 39) 6.50	<.05*	.14
Group			(3, 39)1.47	.24	.10
Control	.625 (.709)	.139 (.345)
Dysgraphia	.311 (.349)	.103 (.164)
Dyslexia	.192 (.193)	.211 (.297)
OWL LD	.082 (.110)	1.20 (.087)
Time × Diagnostic group			(3, 39) 3.81	<.05*	.23
Right lateral cingulate gyrus
Time	.022 (.008)	.095 (.038)	(1, 39) 4.68	<.05*	.11
Group			(3, 39) .94	.43	.07
Control	.061 (.045)	.081 (.086)
Dysgraphia	.422 (.907)	.053 (.066)
Dyslexia	.103 (.081)	.141 (.391)
OWL LD	.043 (.031)	.037 (.033)
Time × Diagnostic group			(3,39) .16	.69	.00
Multi-sentence reading
Left insular region
Time	.005 (.004)	.050 (.022)	(1, 39) 4.17	<.05*	.10
Group			(3, 39)1.47	.24	.10
Control	.000 (.000)	.000 (.000)
Dysgraphia	.038 (.111)	.008 (.023)
Dyslexia	.048 (.140)	.009 (.031)
OWL LD	.001 (.003)	.107 (.193)
Time x Group			(3,39) 2.06	.12	.14
Right middle frontal gyrus
Time	.223 (.035)	.215 (.054)	(1, 39) .02	.90	.00
Group			(3, 39)2.00	.13	.13
Control	.043 (.042)	.433 (.660)
Dysgraphia	.082 (.092)	.197 (.264)
Dyslexia	.155 (.183)	.148 (.178)
OWL LD	.610 (.445)	.080 (.091)
Time × Diagnostic group			(3, 39) 6.71	.001***	.34

Notes: Only results for each group at each time rather than for each group across the two times are reported. These can be used to interpret both group effects and time × diagnostic group effects.

* p < 0.05.

** p < 0.01.

*** p < 0.001

Mather, N., Roberts, R., Hammill, D., & Allen, E. (2008). Test of orthographic competence (TOC). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

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Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., & Rashotte, C. (1999). Test of word reading efficiency. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

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